1. Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc
Chapter 1
Science, Society, and Criminological Research
Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

2. Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc
Topics to Cover
Reasoning About the Social World
The Social Science Approach
Social Research Philosophies
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
Specific Types of Research Methods
Strengths and Limitations of Social Research
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3. Everyday Errors in Reasoning
Overgeneralization
Selective Observation
Inaccurate Observation
Illogical Reasoning
Resistance to Change
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Overgeneralization
What is true for one case is true in all cases
Drawing conclusion from interactions with a limited number of people
Can lead to stereotypes
Example: An individual was treated poorly by a law enforcement officer and then assumes that all law enforcement treat citizens poorly
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5. Selective Observation
Look at phenomena according to personal beliefs, regardless of fact
Overgeneralization can lead to selective observation
Example: In relation to the previous example, whenever that same individual sees a law enforcement officer engaging with a citizen he/she interprets the interaction as negative
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6. Inaccurate Observation
See a phenomenon that did not occur or perceive it differently
Perception involves interpretation
Example: Eyewitness misidentification
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Illogical Reasoning
Draw conclusions from invalid assumptions
Assuming something is true if a majority of the time is it is not true
Example: Poverty causes crime
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Resistance to Change
New information fails to change attitudes
Ego-based commitments
Excessive devotion to tradition
Uncritical agreement with authority
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9. Social Science Research
Criminological and criminal justice research is an area of social science research:
Science - a set of logical, systematic, documented methods for investigating nature and natural processes; the knowledge produced by these investigations
Social Science - the use of scientific methods to investigate individuals, societies, and social processes; the knowledge produced by these investigations
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10. Social Scientific Research Methods
Reduce the likelihood of overgeneralization
Reduce the risk of selective or inaccurate observation
Avoid illogical reasoning
Lessen the tendency to answer questions about the social world from ego-based commitments, excessive devotion to tradition, and/or unquestioning respect for authority
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11. Science versus Pseudoscience
The scientific method represents an epistemology, a way of knowing based on objective, empirical investigation
Transparency allows for replication of the study
Peer review allows for the scientific merit of the study to be evaluated
Pseudoscience is findings based on intuition, gut reactions, or personal experience
Example: Phrenology
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12. Motives for Criminological Research
Policy motivations
Assess programs and policies to determine their success and develop ways to improve outcomes and better address problems
Academic motivations
Learn more about complex social phenomena to better understand crime and society’s response to it
Personal motivations
Improve society, solve a problem of personal interest
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13. Social Criminological Research in Practice
Descriptive
Define and describe, count
Example: What is the magnitude of youth violence?
Exploratory
Gather more information on newly identified areas/concerns
Example: How do schools respond to gun violence?
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14. Social Criminological Research in Practice
Explanatory
Cause and effect
Example: What factors are related to youth delinquency and violence?
Evaluation
Effects of intervention
Example: Do violence prevention programs in schools work?
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15. Social Research Philosophies: Positivism and Postpositivism
An objective reality exists apart from perceptions (also called “empirical” reality)
Goal of research is to study things in a way that helps discover or understand reality
Postpositivism
Empirical reality exists, but because of complexity of human behavior and associations, we may not be able to understand it completely
Goal of research is to achieve intersubjective agreement because limitations in research techniques often prevent ability to perceive objective reality
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16. Positivist and Postpositivist: Research Guidelines
Test ideas against empirical reality without becoming invested in the outcome
Plan and execute research systematically
Document all procedures and make them available to other researchers
Clarify assumptions on which research is based
Define all terms
Maintain skepticism about current knowledge
Replicate studies to build and refine theory
Search for patterns in social behaviors or relationships
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17. Social Research Philosophies: Interpretivism and Constructivism
No single empirical reality
People have different understandings of situations
Research should study how people perceive reality
Participatory action research
Researcher collaborates with some of the persons studied
Develop valid definitions, bring unique insights, and desire change in the organization
Constructivism
Extends interpretivism to emphasize the importance of how different stakeholders construct their beliefs
Utilize the hermeneutic circle approach to produce case report
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18. Social Research Philosophies: Feminist Research
Research done by feminists
Focus on women’s lives
Includes the interpretivist and constructivist elements of concern with personal experience and subjective feelings
Importance placed on sensitivity to the impact of social differences
Researcher’s role as an “insider” or “outsider” to the social situation
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19. Interpretivist and Constructivist: Research Guidelines
Identify stakeholders (people to whom the subject of the research is important) and ask them about their “claims, concerns, and issues”
Share these claims, concerns, and issues with other stakeholder groups to obtain their perspectives
Focus further investigation on areas of disagreement among stakeholder groups
Work with stakeholder groups to attempt to reach consensus in areas of disagreement
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20. An Integrated Philosophy
Value to using both positivist and interpretivist philosophies
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21. Approaches to Research
Quantitative
Using numbers to describe social phenomena
Count events
Analyze information with statistical techniques
Qualitative
Written or spoken words with no direct numerical interpretation
Interpretation of events observed as they occur
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22. Approaches to Research
Mixed methods
Using both qualitative and quantitative methods to study one research question
Triangulation
The combination of methods to answer a question
Clearer picture of the social reality being studied
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23. Types of Research Methods
Experimental approach
True Experiment contains all three elements:
Two groups
Random assignment to group
Assessment of change in the outcome variable after the treatment or policy has been received (post-test)
Quasi Experiment
Lack one of the three elements of a true experiment
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24. Types of Research Methods
Surveys or questionnaires
Asking people fixed-format questions
Participant observation
Developing a sustained relationship with people and observing them as they go about their normal activities
Intensive interviewing
Asking people in-depth information on feelings, experiences, and perceptions
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25. Types of Research Methods
Secondary data
Analyzing existing data
Historical events research
Analyzing documents from the past
Content analysis
Studying representations of the research topic
Example: media and legal opinions
Crime mapping
Geo-spatial analysis of crime
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26. Strengths and Limitations of Social Research
Studies are designed to reduce the errors common in everyday reasoning
However, research always has some limitations and flaws and subject to differing interpretations
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27. Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc
Discussion
Give an example of three of the errors in human inquiry each from the field of criminal justice. If a social scientific approach was used in place of basic human inquiry, how might these errors be reduced?
Give an example of a research question. Which of the four purposes for social scientific research do you believe your research questions falls under?
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