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Recap ….The Development process
Phenomena stage Conceptualization of the study area Problem clarification stage Problem identification Problem statement Problem analysis Organizing objectives for the research Research questions Building the Research Framework Selecting the type of the research
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Development phase Organizing the methodology
Validity and reliability Ethical consideration
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A. Improving the Validity and reliability of data
Population and sampling Validity and reliability Ethical consideration
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Validity & Reliability
Deriving Valid and Reliable Conclusions When research design is selected all attempts to make it to be valid and reliable. Validity – means conclusive are true Reliability – means in repeated attempts, conclusion have to be the same
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Eliminating threats to validity in selecting research design;
By selecting appropriate design this could be performed Descriptive studies : By sampling, the information is collected and findings used to make conclusion about the population. Proper sampling is the key to success.
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Bias in information collection
Defective Instrument Questionnaire : The questions placed in logical order and vaguely phrased. Also fixed/closed questionnaire on the topics less known, open ended questionnaire without guidelines Weighing scale substandard
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2. Observer bias In observation & interviews critical information may be missed Therefore to reduce this organizing observation guidelines for structured interviews training & practicing of data collectors
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3. Effect of the interviewer on the informant
Respondent may mistrust the interviewer and dodge questions. This bias can be reduce by adequately informing the subject and assuring them about information collected are kept confidential. Careful selection of interviewers is also important.
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Ethical Consideration
The data collecting technique should will not effect any emotional or mental harm to study subjects, such as asking sensitive questions that may violate their privacy, observing informats, without their knowledge and failing to respect certain cultural values, traditions etc. Remedy for these are Obtaining permission before study begins, not exploring sensitive questions before developing a good relationship with the informant Ensuring confidentiality of the data obtained. (name and address)
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3. Stratified Sampling This method is useful when a sample needs to include “Representative groups of study units with “specific characteristics” Urban/Rural/age limits Here the sample frame is divided into groups of “strata “according to the characteristics. Urban / Rural Then random or systematic sample of pre- determined sample size randomly from “each group” ( “stratum” ) Example : “Ethnicity in Sri Lanka” – strata - 80% Singhalese , 12% Tamils ; 6% Muslims; 2% others
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3. Stratified Sampling This is only possible if the “proportion of Study population” is known in each group. Advantage of stratified sampling is that we can take relatively large sample from relatively sample group . This allows the researcher to obtain a larger sample that we could draw conclusions (without obtaining a larger group)
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4. Cluster Sampling The selection of “groups” in study units instead of “individual study units”. Clusters are often geographic unit (districts, villages) or organizational units, schools, clinics, training units). Groups of students available (ex; villages or schools) Number of these groups are randomly selected. This is useful without of sampling frame Ex. ‘KAP study or FP in rural communities- list of all the villages
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4. Multi-stage Sampling Procedure is carried out in phases and usually involves more than one sampling method. This is frequently done in “community studies” Ex. Four stage sampling method for ‘cleanliness of latrines’ district comprised of 6 “wards” and each ward has 6-9 villages Select 3 wards from 6 by simple random sampling For each selected ward select 5 “villages” by simple random For each village select 10 “households” by systematic random sampling
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4. Multi-stage Sampling Go to the center of the village
Choose a direction in random way – toss a coin Walk in the chosen direction, select every 3rd household (depending on the size of the village) Decide before hand whom to interview (ex. Oldest)
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Selection of Sample size
Rough guide – 10% of population Equations and statistical methods of calculating sampling size
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Validity Standardization of the research Validity
How accurate the measured variable ACCURACY Threats to validity History Subject loss Selectivity Hawthorne effect
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How to reduce threats of Validity
Control group Randomization Pre-testing Knowledge of events
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Reliability Repeated tests should give same results
Standardization of : Measuring instrument and conditions is essential Training of the research staff
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II. Implantation phase
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Data Analysis Statistical methods Computerized methods
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Presentation of Results
Simple approach Statistical significance is important Graphs / tables Indicate key findings in the conclusion
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Ethical consideration in research
Before you move any further look at the ethics ……!
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Ethical Consideration
War crimes after world war II Nuremberg code- 1940 Guidelines to voluntary consent Withdrawal of subjects from studies Protection of subjects from suffering , injury, disability , and death Declaration of Helsinki – 1960 Human research after laboratory tests Review of research protocols by an independent group Informed consent Conducted by professionals -qualified scientifically / medically Benefits must be more than Risks Revisions in 1975,
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Ethical Consideration National Health and Medical Research Council
NHMRC – Australia – “Ethical culture” & “Informed consent” Strong ethical culture should demonstrate honesty and interiority Respect for human participants , animals and the environment Good use of public resources in conducting research Acknowledgement of the others used in research Responsible communication of the results Informed consent Self determination Privacy & dignity Anonymity & confidentiality To fair treatment Protection and discomfort from harm
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Ethics in research Autonomy Beneficence Non-malificence Privacy
Confidentiality Veracity Fidelity
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1.Principle of Autonomy Humans have the right to non – interference when making decisions about themselves Forms the basis of ideas about privacy, confidentiality, veracity and consent
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2.Principle of Beneficence
“I will use treatment for the benefit of the sick, according to my ability and judgment” Hippocratic Oath Conduct is aimed at the good and well being of others Principle requires that practitioners provide both appropriate treatment and an assurance that the treatment will not produce more harm than good
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3.Principle of Non-malificence
“Above all do no harm” Hippocratic Oath In health care the ethical issues of non-malificence and beneficence are particularly apparent in decisions regarding the institution of dangerous therapy or withdrawal of therapy that is no longer thought to be beneficial.
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4.Privacy Safeguarding areas where patient does not want to reveal :
History Examinations Investigations
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5. Confidentiality Not reveling information collected from the patient without her / his consent : Verbally Examination Records Complicated process Harm vs. benefit Individual Social Use your common sense Inform superiors
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6.Veracity Revealing truthful information to the patient:
As a professional Cultural /social /Medical Personnel Harm vs. Benefit Complicated process Experienced person needed
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7.Fidelty Agreement with the patient Verbal Non verbal
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Applying Ethical Considerations in research
In research emotional or mental harm to study subjects Even as asking sensitive questions that may violate their privacy Observing without their knowledge Failing to respect certain cultural values, traditions etc. Remedy : Obtaining permission before study begins not exploring sensitive questions before developing a good relationship with the informant Ensuring confidentiality of the data obtained. (name and address)
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Writing the proposal Sample proposal - OUM
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Work plan / Budget List the activities Organize the schedule
Gang chart Budget
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Obtaining and ethical clearance
IIHS Proposal for ethical clearance
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Writing the report OUM BNS guideline
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Recommendations Key findings Relate to local environment
Further research
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Thank You !
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