1. Recap ….The Development process
Phenomena stage
Conceptualization of the study area
Problem clarification stage
Problem identification
Problem statement
Problem analysis
Organizing objectives for the research
Research questions
Building the Research Framework
Selecting the type of the research

2. Development phase Organizing the methodology
Validity and reliability
Ethical consideration

3. A. Improving the Validity and reliability of data
Population and sampling
Validity and reliability
Ethical consideration

4. Validity & Reliability
Deriving Valid and Reliable Conclusions
When research design is selected all attempts to make it to be valid and reliable.
Validity – means conclusive are true
Reliability – means in repeated attempts, conclusion have to be the same

5. Eliminating threats to validity in selecting research design;
By selecting appropriate design this could be performed
Descriptive studies : By sampling, the information is collected and findings used to make conclusion about the population. Proper sampling is the key to success.

6. Bias in information collection
Defective Instrument
Questionnaire :
The questions placed in logical order and vaguely phrased. Also fixed/closed questionnaire on the topics less known, open ended questionnaire without guidelines
Weighing scale substandard

7. 2. Observer bias
In observation & interviews critical information may be missed
Therefore to reduce this
organizing observation guidelines for structured interviews
training & practicing of data collectors

8. 3. Effect of the interviewer on the informant
Respondent may mistrust the interviewer and dodge questions.
This bias can be reduce by adequately informing the subject and assuring them about information collected are kept confidential.
Careful selection of interviewers is also important.

9. Ethical Consideration
The data collecting technique should will not effect any emotional or mental harm to study subjects, such as asking sensitive questions that may violate their privacy, observing informats, without their knowledge and failing to respect certain cultural values, traditions etc.
Remedy for these are
Obtaining permission before study begins, not exploring sensitive questions before developing a good relationship with the informant
Ensuring confidentiality of the data obtained. (name and address)

10. 3. Stratified Sampling
This method is useful when a sample needs to include “Representative groups of study units with “specific characteristics”
Urban/Rural/age limits
Here the sample frame is divided into groups of “strata “according to the characteristics.
Urban / Rural
Then random or systematic sample of pre- determined sample size randomly from “each group” ( “stratum” )
Example : “Ethnicity in Sri Lanka” – strata - 80% Singhalese , 12% Tamils ; 6% Muslims; 2% others

11. 3. Stratified Sampling
This is only possible if the “proportion of Study population” is known in each group.
Advantage of stratified sampling is that we can take relatively large sample from relatively sample group .
This allows the researcher to obtain a larger sample that we could draw conclusions (without obtaining a larger group)

12. 4. Cluster Sampling
The selection of “groups” in study units instead of “individual study units”.
Clusters are often geographic unit (districts, villages) or organizational units, schools, clinics, training units).
Groups of students available (ex; villages or schools)
Number of these groups are randomly selected.
This is useful without of sampling frame
Ex. ‘KAP study or FP in rural communities- list of all the villages

13. 4. Multi-stage Sampling
Procedure is carried out in phases and usually involves more than one sampling method.
This is frequently done in “community studies”
Ex. Four stage sampling method for ‘cleanliness of latrines’ district comprised of 6 “wards” and each ward has 6-9 villages
Select 3 wards from 6 by simple random sampling
For each selected ward select 5 “villages” by simple random
For each village select 10 “households” by systematic random sampling

14. 4. Multi-stage Sampling Go to the center of the village
Choose a direction in random way – toss a coin
Walk in the chosen direction, select every 3rd household (depending on the size of the village)
Decide before hand whom to interview (ex. Oldest)

15. Selection of Sample size
Rough guide – 10% of population
Equations and statistical methods of calculating sampling size

16. Validity Standardization of the research Validity
How accurate the measured variable ACCURACY
Threats to validity
History
Subject loss
Selectivity
Hawthorne effect

17. How to reduce threats of Validity
Control group
Randomization
Pre-testing
Knowledge of events

18. Reliability Repeated tests should give same results
Standardization of :
Measuring instrument and conditions is essential
Training of the research staff

19. II. Implantation phase

20. Data Analysis
Statistical methods
Computerized methods

21. Presentation of Results
Simple approach
Statistical significance is important
Graphs / tables
Indicate key findings in the conclusion

22. Ethical consideration in research
Before you move any further look at the ethics ……!

23. Ethical Consideration
War crimes after world war II
Nuremberg code- 1940
Guidelines to voluntary consent
Withdrawal of subjects from studies
Protection of subjects from suffering , injury, disability , and death
Declaration of Helsinki – 1960
Human research after laboratory tests  
Review of research protocols by an independent group
Informed consent
Conducted by professionals -qualified scientifically / medically
Benefits must be more than Risks
Revisions in 1975,

24. Ethical Consideration National Health and Medical Research Council
NHMRC – Australia – “Ethical culture” & “Informed consent”
Strong ethical culture should demonstrate
honesty and interiority
Respect for human participants , animals and the environment
Good use of public resources in conducting research
Acknowledgement of the others used in research
Responsible communication of the results
Informed consent
Self determination
Privacy & dignity
Anonymity & confidentiality
To fair treatment
Protection and discomfort from harm

25. Ethics in research Autonomy Beneficence Non-malificence Privacy
Confidentiality
Veracity
Fidelity

26. 1.Principle of Autonomy
Humans have the right to non – interference when making decisions about themselves
Forms the basis of ideas about privacy, confidentiality, veracity and consent

27. 2.Principle of Beneficence
“I will use treatment for the benefit of the sick, according to my ability and judgment”
Hippocratic Oath
Conduct is aimed at the good and well being of others
Principle requires that practitioners provide both appropriate treatment and an assurance that the treatment will not produce more harm than good

28. 3.Principle of Non-malificence
“Above all do no harm” Hippocratic Oath
In health care the ethical issues of non-malificence and beneficence are particularly apparent in decisions regarding the institution of dangerous therapy or withdrawal of therapy that is no longer thought to be beneficial.

29. 4.Privacy Safeguarding areas where patient does not want to reveal :
History
Examinations
Investigations

30. 5. Confidentiality
Not reveling information collected from the patient without her / his consent :
Verbally
Examination
Records
Complicated process
Harm vs. benefit
Individual
Social
Use your common sense
Inform superiors

31. 6.Veracity Revealing truthful information to the patient:
As a professional
Cultural /social /Medical
Personnel Harm vs. Benefit
Complicated process
Experienced person needed

32. 7.Fidelty
Agreement with the patient
Verbal
Non verbal

33. Applying Ethical Considerations in research
In research emotional or mental harm to study subjects
Even as asking sensitive questions that may violate their privacy
Observing without their knowledge
Failing to respect certain cultural values, traditions etc.
Remedy :
Obtaining permission before study begins
not exploring sensitive questions before developing a good relationship with the informant
Ensuring confidentiality of the data obtained. (name and address)

34. Writing the proposal
Sample proposal - OUM

35. Work plan / Budget List the activities Organize the schedule
Gang chart
Budget

36. Obtaining and ethical clearance
IIHS Proposal for ethical clearance

37. Writing the report
OUM BNS guideline

38. Recommendations Key findings Relate to local environment
Further research

39. Thank You !