Situational Awareness

Situational Awareness
How to gain and maintain it

Gaining and Maintaining Situational Awareness
What is Situational Awareness ? Gaining Situational Awareness Gathering data Understanding Thinking ahead Maintaining your Situational Awareness Improving your Situational Awareness

Why Situational Awareness ?
The most frequent causal factor of all accidents (41 percent) was lack of positional awareness in the air. UK CAA Global Fatal Accident Review The second most common primary causal factor was “lack of positional awareness in the air,” generally resulting in controlled flight into terrain (CFIT). Flight Safety Digest November 1998–February Special FSF Report: Killers in Aviation: Gaining and maintaining situation Awareness (SA) is a major asset in flying, but if awareness is absent or degraded then hazardous threats or errors may not be detected Of the accidents attributable to human factors failures (80% of the total), 75% of those accidents were caused by failures in situational assessment / subsequent decision actions. 75% of the accidents in the 1994 NTSB study could be classified as "Plan Continuation Errors" - essentially errors in assessment / judgment. The most frequently identified causal factors in the 589 fatal accidents were: 1) Lack of positional awareness in air 244 (41.4%) 2) Omission of action / inappropriate action 216 (36.7%) 3) Flight handling 177 (30.1%) 4) Poor professional judgement / airmanship 134 (22.8%) 5) Slow and/or low on approach 113 (19.2%) 6) Failure in Crew Resource Management (CRM) 101 (17.1%) 7) Press-on-it-is 97 (16.5%) 8) Deliberate non-adherence to procedures 72 (12.2%) Note: The factors are not mutually exclusive as each accident generally involves more than one factor. It is interesting to note that the 8 most frequently identified causal factors (including primary) belonged to the Crew group. UK CAA CAP 681 Global Fatal Accident Review Good airmanship requires pilots to have good situational awareness; it is the basis for decision making and action.

What is Situational Awareness ?
q The perception of elements in the environment, within a volume of time and space, q The comprehension of their meaning and q The projection of their status in the near future Situational Awareness is having an accurate understanding (perception, comprehension, projection) of our surroundings (the environment together with time and space): what happened? where are we ? what is happening ? what is changing ? and what could happen ? What happened ? Where am I ? What is happening ? What could happen ?

“Staying ahead of the airplane”
Elements of Situational Awareness Informational Influences Environmental Influences Environmental Awareness System Awareness Crew Actions & Behaviours Mode Awareness Situational awareness is a fundamental requirement for good airmanship, forming the basis for pilot decision making and performance. Good situational awareness implies better performance and better decisions. “Staying ahead of the airplane” “Situational awareness" encompasses the pilot's mental model of the situation upon which all of his/her decisions rely. The elements of SA that affect the crew are : - Environmental influences - Organizational Influences - Personal influences - Informational Influences Spatial Orientation Personal Influences Organizational Influences Time Horizon Source : Aircrew Incident Reporting Scheme (AIRS) Model

Three Levels of Situational Awareness
We have to see and sense : PERCEIVE 1 2 We need to understand what was actually seen: COMPREHEND 3 We have to use what we have understood to think ahead : PROJECT Thinking ahead Updating the model 3 Understanding the situation triggers decision making, action and review To achieve good Situational Awareness, it is necessary to: - gather data (sensing, perception) seek cues in the environment - assemble information to give understanding (comprehension), knowledge and experience - then using this understanding for thinking ahead (projection), skilled thinking In terms of flight crew attitude it involves : Prepare and review (planning) Notice and perceive (information gathering monitoring) Understand and interpret Project and think ahead Communicating errors and experiences Manage workload Understanding Comparison with mental models 2 Scanning Gathering data 1 Feedback, check, monitor

How Can We Improve Our Situational Awareness ?
Assessment of your Situational Awareness q Seek and gather data (sensing) q Combine data into meaningful information (perception) q Understand what the information means (comprehension) q Use your understanding to think ahead and reconsider the plan (projection) Where do we want to go? How Can We Improve Our Situational Awareness ? Situational Awareness describes the pilot ’s awareness of what is going on around him, e.g. where he is geographically, his orientation in space, what mode the aircraft is in, etc. It involves the process of attention, perception and judgment in thinking ahead. Situational awareness refers to: the perception of important elements e.g. seeing a low oil pressure indication. the comprehension of their meaning, e.g. is there a leak? Is it a faulty indication? the projection of their status into the future, e.g. does this require an engine shut down, a diversion, where are the airports, what is the weather? Feedback improves situation awareness by informing us of the accuracy of our mental models and their predictions. Factors affecting Situational Awareness Inexperience crews High work load, Time pressure, Distractions / Confusion / Interruptions. Fatigue High stress situations Non-normal activities or emergency procedures Inadequate planning / briefing Poor attitudes; impulsiveness (rush / hurry) Fixation or preoccupation, Non-verification of critical items Ambiguous information or situations, Accepting 2nd hand Information Complacency, not resolving discrepancies Use of Inadequate or improper procedures Where Are We Now Where have we been? Situational awareness describes the pilot’s knowledge of what is going on around him — where he is, his orientation, what mode the aircraft is in and what other people are doing

Gathering data : What to look for and when
Build the mental model by : - scanning the important aspects of our surroundings - comparing them with experiences and knowledge in memory Plane – Control Path – Navigation People – Self and Others Manage – System and Situation Building a mental model : Is based on Scanning the following : - Control of the plane : attitude, altitude, vertical speed, heading, automation - Path navigation : terrain, airport, runway, future track, timing - Oneself and other members of the team : shared awareness, workload, capability, stress - Systems management : status, level of automation, fuel - Environment : current weather, runway conditions, windshear, turbulence, wake turbulence - Future : predicted position, flight path, fuel state, destination and diversion weather Gaining and maintaining Situational Awareness is an active process of seeking information about the world around you and creating a mental model of that world. It includes an awareness of many factors, including: Your aircraft, its systems, fuel state, and how well it’s performing The environment, including weather conditions Your location, now and in the near future The Airspace, other users of, or obstacles in that airspace An awareness of yourself and how you are performing People Path Plane Future Now Situational Awareness SCAN EVALUATE ANTICIPATE CONSIDER Evaluate all aspects … Plane, Path, People

Gathering data : Learning what to ‘see’
What to search for – driven by the need for the information When to look at specific information, phase of flight or event timing Where the information can be found, source and reliability Why the information is relevant to the circumstances Know what’s important and why Having more data doesn’t mean more information Manage the task of scanning Balance scan time with quality of information Use procedure-based scans Avoid interruptions Don’t rush Some Tips … What the information should indicate, how valuable is it How the information relates to other sources of information How the information should be used to improve our understanding Scanning requires motivation, dedication, and concentration as well as Discipline and controlled attention. Problems associated with Situational Awareness (FAA CAST / JAA JSSI JSAT) and ESSAI (36 incidents): Crew preoccupation and complacency with modern flight deck automation Crews’ lack of system situation awareness and mode awareness Crews’ inability to handle information being displayed to them Crews’ inappropriate level of automation skill and knowledge Crews’ workload increases under time constraint Crews’ inability to respond to warnings or alerts Inadequate crew training and procedures Poor Awareness and Communication Lack of crew co-ordination,Poor team effort .Inappropriate crew preoccupation & decision-making Human Error Attentional tunnelling / fatigue / stress / illness / experience Contradicting Information, incorrect or conflicting mental models Applying previous (incorrect) experience Abnormal situations coupled with bad Visibility/Weather

Gathering data : Failing to ‘see’
q Actively seek new data, use alternative sources where data are not available or difficult to detect q Scanning and observing require discipline q Be aware of visual illusions (senses to pick-up g’s - !!??) q Do not ‘expect’ to see something Where data is not available or difficult to detect: Actively scan for new data, use alternative sources Scanning and observing requires discipline: Have a wide area of attention, avoid concentrating on one item Use checklists to reduce errors - forgetting an item Reduce workload, share tasks with other people If distracted, return to the starting point Be aware of visual illusions: Take time to asses the visual scene, view it on several occasions Cross check with flight instruments, always believe the instruments Do not ‘expect’ to see something: Do not change what is seen to fit the mental model Review and update the mental model Check alternative sources of data Check with other crew members Gathering information – seeing - sensing information can suffer from false information; visual illusion, or disorientation. See BN ‘Spatial disorientation’ Monitoring : Humans have limits to how much we can see and hear at the same time. Be aware of what you need to and ignore everything else. The checklist is probably the most common tool for focusing attention. Sometimes you see only half of the picture but need all of it to understand the situation

Understanding - Creating the mental model
Mental models are formed by : q The combination of knowledge and experience recalled from memory, and q The perceived information from the real world Memory Recall Training Knowledge Experiences Mental models start with combination of knowledge and experience that takes the form of a plan. It is important both for individuals and groups such as crews to have a common understanding of the situation. A shared mental model allows members of a group to agree with decisions and confirm action; this is a component of cross checking and monitoring. SOPs are a foundation for a mental model; it is important to be able to relate to them, recall them accurately, and understand in which scenarios they apply. Experiences of what happen previously can shape a mental model. However be aware memory recall may be flawed – avoid recalling events where you wanted a good outcome, but in reality it was not good Always consider risks; a mental model has some risk. Have you remembered correctly, does this knowledge apply in this situation, or are your thoughts biased

Understanding - Creating the mental model
Mental models are formed by : q The combination of knowledge and experience recalled from memory and q The perceived information from the real world Real World Searching Plane, Path, People What, When, Where, Why Real World Searching involves : - Scanning for new data, using alternative sources - Assessing the visual scene, viewing it on several occasions - Cross-checking with flight instruments, always believe the instruments Information gathering Check the environment for contradictory facts; know when expectations have been violated. Double x-check as much as possible, Validate info by applying rules of thumb Stay in the loop. Adjust monitoring patterns to phase of flight, manage your attention Interpretation Compare cockpit indications & environmental cues with the mental model of the aircraft state Assess whether parameters agree with the plan Have good systems knowledge Check and recheck the interpretation of the situation, continually re assess the situation Communication Crew (verbal and non-verbal) communication, share mental models Share experiences, ‘story-telling’. Accept error, but take correcting / mitigating action Identify loss of SA in other crewmembers; cockpit, cabin, ATC, & dispatch. Self and crew-awareness Be aware of the cues/signals for loss of SA (self and other crew member) Watch your own and crewmember behaviors, self-critique Be aware of human performance - limitations & behavior pitfalls. Check symptoms of losing the plot Detect any of deterioration of perception of the aircraft’s flight path - spatial awareness Workload management Set priorities regarding situation and control. Manage your attention, tasks and workload Preparation & Anticipation Define objectives for each phase, not too focused on one goal, set markers, and extrapolate Plan ahead with mental simulation (with scenarios or what-if situations) Maintain good physical health

Understanding – Comparison and Analysis
q Compare and update our mental models with the real world q When matching, understanding of the situation is achieved Internal attention External attention Memory Mental Recall Model Training Knowledge Experiences Real World Searching Plane, Path, People What, When, Where, Why The plan is comprised of the current real and future states of - Plane, the Path, and the People. foundation all crew members are building their situational awareness upon. constantly being updated based on the awareness activities. Ensuring the entire crew has the same shared plan will ensure that they have a shared situational awareness. Situational Awareness may differ from one person to another and may be partially the result of experience, personality, other inherent characteristics, and motivation. Compare each observation made with other observations and with expectations and plans, and seeking more information. If the plan is not be recognize from the current information that suggests that the plan needs to be revised. Understanding of the situation

Compare the situation with the plan
When Understanding : Organize! Control your thinking! Understanding improves with experience : more memory situations (patterns and associations) developed for comparisons q Check all aspects of the mental model q How does the situation compare with “the plan” q How does the situation compare with previous situations Compare the situation with the plan Check all aspects of the mental model: those which agree with your understanding those which disagree with your understanding those which are not yet understood, but should provide information what information is still required, have all key sources of information been used How does the situation compare with the plan: at this stage of flight the next stage of the flight for the remainder of the flight How does the situation compare with previous or similar situations Biased Thinking People tend to look for things that fit into their expectations of what the world and the people in it are like. They are particularly alert for situations similar to how they may have been hurt before. The person's emotions can drive their view to conform to past events, rather than with the present events. Failure to understand: Check reliability of source. Consider deep assessment Maintain wide attention. Challenge your understanding of the situation – self check Control stress. Beware of being goal driven – avoid ‘so what’ feelings Don’t act without thinking; avoid automatic action, automatic recognition, understanding and ‘that will happen next’, don’t block memory recall. In addition to monitoring the plane/path/people, you need to evaluate the status of each. The evaluation entails first understanding what you see and hear. Secondly, you make an assessment of the status of each, the plane/path/people. This leads to an understanding of what the situation is now, this gives you situational awareness for the current state. Sheryl L. Chappell - NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System WATCH IT ! Most frequent Situational Awareness errors (1/3) occur in situations where the information existed but was left unattended, usually because of distraction

Question yourself, monitor yourself, be aware of your own situation
When NOT Understanding : Watch Out ! q Information may be misinterpreted : Poor mental model q Failure to recognize the mental model needs to change q Control thinking process Information may be misinterpreted; a poor mental model Do not focus on the loud, bright, or easier to see information Relate the information to previous training and experience Beware of false memories and personal bias Cross check, use alternative sources of data Failure to recognize that the mental model needs to change Compare with similar situations or the simplest situation Do not choose information that only supports the plan Avoid focus on the most recent trained for situation Check the reliability of each piece of information Cross check with SOPs and flight rules Do not expect a good outcome Control the thinking process Do not rush assessments Manage workload and time pressure Don’t assume – check ! Question yourself, monitor yourself, be aware of your own situation Do Not Assume. CHECK !

Stay ahead of the airplane.
Thinking Ahead – Projection An accurate understanding of the situation is essential for planning ahead q Stay ahead of the airplane : Anticipating is projecting the current situation into the future Standard procedures allow you to anticipate what other crew members will do in a given situation Judge when will something could happen – time, place, or event ‘Make’ time for seeking options, choosing, and deciding Consider future hazards and make risk assessments Forecast the flight path, detect trends or errors Set objectives for the next phase of flight Plan and share workload Readjust the plan Think Stay ahead of the airplane. Anticipating simply involves projecting the current situation into the future. Standard procedures allow you to anticipate what other crew members will do in a given situation. A crew that is skilled in managing their situational awareness has a shared vision of what's going to happen in the next few minutes and on into the future. Anticipation is particularly important for high workload situations. Plan The plan is comprised of the current and future states of the plane, the path, and the people. This plan is the foundation all crew members are building their situation awareness upon. The plan is constantly being updated based on the awareness activities. As a crew monitors, evaluates, anticipates, and considers contingencies they continuously modify the plan. Ensuring the entire crew has the same shared plan will ensure that they have a shared situation awareness. Planning : All crew members build their situation awareness on common planning Thinking ahead prepares for decision making

Situational Awareness Process
Situational Awareness & Decision Making Situational Awareness Process Perceive Understand Think Ahead Situational Awareness Anticipated Result Planned Action Feedforward Situational assessment is one of the most important parts of decision making. This assessment determines what strategy will be used and what the decision will be. ("Crews must be willing to challenge their interpretations of situations, especially before making decisions and taking actions that have potentially severe consequences”). Goal Action Result Feedback Decision Making Loop

Thinking Ahead – in practice
q Set time or place markers for rechecking the situation q Confirm that the future situation agrees with the plan q Set priorities regarding the current situation Rules Standard Procedures q Set priorities for thinking Workload Attention Task 1000 ft: Speed < Vref + 20 Check height, flight path, configuration Next: 500 ft, wind / tailwind check 500 ft: Speed < Vref + 20 Check height, flight path Next: Threshold, < Vref +15 As a common example, when properly briefing an approach, the entire crew is made aware of the required flight path for the missed approach. Should a missed approach be executed, each crew member has a shared awareness of the sequence of actions, the airport environment, and the navigational information. They collectively know the 'what', 'where', 'when', and 'who' of the missed approach procedure. Thinking things through ahead of time and dividing the tasks and the information so that both become manageable "Is there something that we're not aware of that can bite us?“ Sheryl L. Chappell - NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System Threshold: < Vref + 15, height 50 ft Next: touchdown speed and position

Consider Contingencies.
Failing to Think Ahead – “What If ?” q Consider contingencies q Manage awareness of other crewmembers Recognize typical threat scenarios: Rushed briefings and checklists Rapidly changing weather Last leg of the day Runway change Unstable approach Consider Contingencies. Invulnerability - it could happen to you Poor judgement - follow Standard Procedures Alternatives not considered Failed to monitor and review Continuing with the wrong action Poor prediction of consequences Reluctant to change plan / model Sometimes things happen that cannot be anticipated. Playing the 'what if' game has a tremendous advantage in the management of situational awareness. Manage Awareness. Crew procedures are designed to focus attention and keep the big picture, by dividing the awareness responsibilities. When functioning as a crew, you not only have to concern yourself with what you're doing, but also with what other people are doing. You need to check that the other crew members do certain things that fall into their area of responsibility. You also need to check that they do not do certain things that are inappropriate or unsafe.

Maintaining Situational Awareness
Monitor, Focus and Direct your Attention Scan: Plane, Path, People = 3Ps Anticipate, Stay Ahead of the Airplane Consider ‘what if’ Focus on the right information at the right time Keeping the priorities straight is a constant challenge Focus on the right information at the right time. Keeping the priorities straight is a constant challenge, "What do they know that I need to know?" As team members we need to utilize all our sources of information to be aware of everything we need to be. Many of those sources are other people's eyes and ears. Use all the sources of information you have available to maximize your situation awareness. "What do I know that they need to know?" "Do I know something my other crew members don't that they should know?" If the answer is yes, then tell them. If the answer is that they don't need to know, but they should know that you're keeping an eye on it, then tell them that you are; - Communicate When something takes your attention away from what the other crew members are expecting you to keep an eye on, tell them that too. There will be times when you will have a reduced level of awareness due to fatigue, distraction or some other factor. Let the other crew members know when this is the case, so that they can back you up more carefully. "What do none of us know that we need to know?" "What are we as a crew not paying attention to?" If everyone is looking at the same thing, then something's getting missed. If you are unsure whether another crew member is maintaining awareness of something, be sure to clarify. The request "keep an eye on that for me" comes in handy. Sheryl L. Chappell - NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System Remember:- Habits are hard to break Automation keeps its secrets Distractions come in many forms Expectations can reduce awareness Reliable systems aren’t always reliable Watch out when you are busy or bored It’s hard to detect something that isn’t there Things that take longer are less likely to get done right If something doesn’t look or feel right, then it probably isn’t right Communicate What don't we know that we need to know What do they know that I need to know What do I know that they need to know What are we not paying attention to

Clues to the loss of awareness
Losses in Situational Awareness may occur during q Periods of high workload q Periods of multi-tasking q Preoccupation with other tasks q Inadequate feedback from crewmembers q Periods of stress q Interactions with automated systems How do you know if you’ve lost it? Generally, losses in SA occurred during periods of high workload, during periods of multi-tasking, a preoccupation with other tasks, inadequate feedback from crewmembers, during periods of stress and during interactions with automated systems. These "clues“ can warn of an error chain or loss of awareness: Ambiguity - information from two or more sources doesn't agree Fixation - focusing on one thing to the exclusion of everything else Confusion - uncertainty or misunderstanding a situation or information No-one ‘flying’ the aircraft - everyone is focussed on non-flying activities Discrepancies not resolved - contradictory data or personal conflicts Expected checkpoints not met - flight plan, profile, time, fuel burn Breaking rules - limitations, minimums, regulatory requirements Poor communications - vague or incomplete statements Failure to follow to Standard Procedures – sequence ignored or skipped steps No time – in a hurry or behind schedule DO Ask questions: of your self of others of the situation Fly the aircraft: Take over Change automation level Go back to the last stable situation Check navigation, speed, height Plane, Path, People

Recovering Situational Awareness
The Golden Rules: MAX SPD VLE =200 KTS 3 S F FLY NAVIGATE COMMUNICATE M S G -/- EMERG RECALL Active CTL: OAKLAND KZAK REQUEST TAT 51 °C SAT 36 GWCG GW 37.5 % KG ISA +5 FOB 30 000 23 H 56 FUEL CRUISE AIR LDG ELEV AUTO 510 FT CAB V/S FT/MIN 50 21 TO 24 22 TOTAL F. USED 45 400 42 200 45 300 KGx1000 KG/H FF 2030 CAB ALT 3500 P 10.5 PSI OVHT MANAGE q Go to the nearest safe, simple and stable situation; follow procedures q Assess the current situation with different data q Go back to the last thing you were sure of q Avoid fixation on a past problem q Take time to think Most of the time everything follows the laws of physics and the prediction is very accurate. Standard procedures allow you to anticipate what other crew members will do in a given situation. Fly, Navigate, Communicate, Manage now and the future Look for the big picture and the necessary details, no matter what situation you are presented with. Where data is not available or difficult to detect: Actively scan for the data, use alternative sources Scanning and observing requires discipline: Maintain a wide focus of attention, avoid concentrating on one item Use checklists to reduce errors of forgetting an item Balance the workload, share tasks with other crew If distracted, return to the starting point Be aware of visual illusions: Take time to asses the visual scene, view it on several occasions Cross check with flight instruments, always believe the instruments Do not ‘expect’ to see something: Do not change what is seen to fit the mental model Review and update the mental model Check alternative sources of data Check with other crew members

Pay attention to mode transitions Monitor and learn from them
Recovering Situational Awareness Pay attention to mode transitions Monitor and learn from them Mental effort to stay in control of the aircraft Mental resources to control actions to control Situational Awareness What is happening now on the new aircraft? First one has to learn new systems knowledge and maneuvers. In doing this you have to start to build your new skills and expectations. You need more mental resources to control your actions. Second you have to monitor your old habits and routines from the previous aircraft, making sure they are appropriate or adapting them for the new context. You need more mental resources to control Situation Awareness, because the new aircraft is not so familiar, your mental picture and expectations are weaker.

Improving your Situational Awareness Control your thinking
Preparation Anticipation Gathering and Checking Knowledge Behavior Prepare and review Notice and perceive Understand and interpret Project and think ahead Communicate Manage stress and workload Prepare and review Notice and perceive Understand and interpret Project and think ahead Communicate Manage stress and workload Preparation and Anticipation Define / plan priorities for each phase of flight Plan ahead, compare scenarios with training Brief expected situations - pre flight, descent Information gathering and checking Interrogate many sources of information Stay in the loop, scan your thoughts Validate by applying rules of thumb Improve scanning skills - practice Knowledge and Behavior Know what is important, when, and why Manage your attention, prioritize your thinking Task management; lower workload, delegate Adjust monitoring patterns to phase of flight De brief – remember lessons learnt Know your boundaries – how close to the edge of safety do you operate ?

Improving your Situational Awareness
Preflight planning is more than fuel and flight path. Visualize actions, consider all threats, know tasks required for each flight phase, distribute your workload evenly Plan Actively seek information from available reliable sources Clarify anything that seems ambiguous Scan Develop a systematic scanning pattern shifting your attention from the aircraft, to the flight path, to the people around you, then back to the aircraft Pay Attention Take time to consider the possibility of something going wrong Constantly ask yourself “what if,” and develop contingency plans Anticipate Manage interruptions and distractions Set yourself reminders for tasks that may become either forgotten or interrupted Remind Remember the objective - continued safe flight. “Good situation awareness enhances decision making. However, good decision making in the cockpit is not simply a process of following a structured line of thinking. It is a skill that needs to be developed through practice and reflection over time. It is assisted by system knowledge and an understanding of your own limits.” Australian CASA ‘Flight Safety Australia’, Mental Is Everything Mar Apr 2001 Has your awareness become vague? Communicate, refresh and confirm the information you’ve gathered Communicate During and after flight, honestly assess your performance based on preflight planning, identify areas where you felt uncertain or confused Evaluate

Relating theory to operation, the legacy of ESSAI:
Enhanced Safety through Situation Awareness Integration in training Perceive Trap Mitigate Avoid Situation Awareness Comprehend Threat Management One will recognise the Avoid Trap Mitigate model of the TEM/LOSA initiative led by ICAO et al. By combining the two models of SA and TM we are able to move from theory to application. Project

Summary : Gain and Maintain Situational Awareness
Scan to seek information Know what is important, when, and where to find it Plane, Path, People 3Ps Check understanding Real world Memory Plan ahead What if Cross Check Manage your attention "Routine" flight operations are under-emphasized. Yet, routine flight operations claim many more lives than non-routine operations: Fly, Navigate, Communicate, Manage the situation …then decide !

Situational Awareness

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