2. IRMA 102: INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION SCIENCE “INFORMATION”

3. Introduction Information is both ubiquitous and elusive.
All objects, animate and inanimate, express information about themselves.
It plays a fundamental role in all human activities and disciplines.

4. Buckland(1999) observed that information had to do with becoming informed, reducing ignorance and uncertainty.
A universally acceptable definition is however, very elusive.

5. 3 Principal uses of the word ‘information’
Buckland (1999) identified 3 principal uses of the word ‘information’ in the literature:
Information-as-process:
When someone is informed, what you know is changed.
Information in this sense is the act of “informing”; communication of the knowledge of some fact/occurrence;
The action of telling or fact of being told of something.

6. Information-as-knowledge:
That which is perceived in “information-as-process.”
That which helps to reduce uncertainty and improves existing knowledge.
Information-as-thing:
Used attributively for objects, such as data in documents.
That having the quality of imparting knowledge or communicating information.

7. Where is the Life we have lost in living?
Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge?
Where is the knowledge we have lost in information?
-T.S. Eliot, "The Rock", Faber & Faber 1934.

8. Data, Knowledge, and Wisdom
DIKW Chain
Information is used in different disciplines and professions to represent different types and levels of organized symbols or ideas – such as:
Data, Knowledge, and Wisdom
The DIKW chain helps to explain the interrelationships and overlaps between the concepts of data, information, knowledge and wisdom.

9. The DIKW chain is about how communication symbols might successively be transformed into data,
then into information,
then into knowledge, and
finally wisdom.

10. Understanding DIKW
Data is raw (raw facts). It simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence (in and of itself). It can exist in any form, usable or not. It does not have meaning of itself.
Information - data that has been given meaning by way of relational connection.
Knowledge - the appropriate collection of information, such that it's intent is to be useful.
Wisdom - It beckons to give us understanding about which there has previously been no understanding, and in doing so, goes far beyond understanding itself.

11. Knowledge Information
Knowledge Pyramid
Wisdom
Applied Knowledge
Knowledge
Organized Information
Accumulation of Information
Information
Linked Elements
Organised data that makes sense
Data
Discrete Elements
(unorganised or partially organised symbols)

12. Clark (2004)

13. Information
Information is defined as meaningful communication symbols transferred between any two points in human communication or machine networks (Aina, Mutula & Tiamiyu, 2008).
Popoola (2006) defined information as facts, news, opinions, messages, symbols, signals and processed data that are capable of improving the knowledge state of a user on a random phenomenon.

14. Aina (2004) defines information as follows:
Increasing the state of knowledge of recipient;
Resolving uncertainty;
Value in decision-making;
A physical surrogate of knowledge;
All published and unpublished knowledge about any given subject;
Body of knowledge.

15. It should be noted that the user not just the sender is involved in the transformation of data into information.
Processed/analysed data is not information until it is understood by the user.
Information is therefore knowledge and understanding that is usable by the recipient.

16. Information – hierarchy of definitions
Braman (1989) developed a four level hierarchical definitions of information –
Each based on a category of definitions drawn from many different fields:
Information as a Resource
Information as a Commodity
Information as a Perception of Pattern
Information as a Constitutive force in Society.

17. ... as a Resource
Information as a resource usually encompasses any information content represented in anyway, embodied in any format and handled by any physical processor.
Information –
its creators, processors and users are viewed as discrete and isolated entities.
Information comes in pieces unrelated to bodies of knowledge.

18. ... as a Commodity A notion incorporating:
‘The exchange of information among people and related activities as well as its use’.
Implies buyers, sellers and a market.
Information as commodity has economic power.

19. ... as Perception of pattern
Concept of Information is broadened by the addition of context.
Information is seen as having ‘a past & a future’.
It is seen to be affected by motive & other environmental & casual factors.
According to Shannon & Weaver – Information is a measure of the predictability of the signal, or the number of choices open to the sender.

20. ... as a constitutive force in society
Information is seen as having a role in shaping social context.
It is not just affected by its environment, but is itself an actor affecting other elements in the environment.

21. Characteristics of good information
As given by Lucey (2005)
Relevant for its purpose
Sufficiently accurate for its purpose
Complete enough for the problem
From a source in which the user has confidence
Communicated to the right person
Communicated in time for its purpose
That which contains the right level of detail
Communicated by an appropriate channel of communication
That which is understandable by the user

22. Relevance
Information must be relevant to the problem being considered.
An overriding quality affected by some other qualities.

23. Accuracy
Information should be sufficiently accurate for it to be relied upon by the user and for the purpose for which it is intended.
Should not be confused with precision.

24. Completeness
Ideally, all the information required for a decision should be available.
Information is said to be complete in respect of the key elements of the problem.

25. Confidence in the source
Users must have confidence in the source.
Confidence is enhanced when:
The source has been reliable in the past;
There is good communication between the information producer and the user.

26. Communication to the right person
Users have reasons/activities demanding their use of information.
Information providers need to understand the potential users of information in order to direct information exactly where it is required.

27. Timing
Good information is that which is communicated in time to be used.
Information should be produced at a frequency which is related to the type of activity involved.

28. Detail
Information should contain the least amount of detail consistent with effective decision making.
Users of information should not be overloaded with unnecessary information.

29. Channel of Communication
For information to be usable, it must be transmitted by means of a communication process.
Face-to-face communication
Written communication
Visual communication
Oral communication
Electronic communication
The channel of communication should be selected considering –
The nature & purpose of the information;
The speed required;
The requirements of the user.

30. Understandability
Understandability is what transforms data into information.
If information is not understood, it cannot be used and thus cannot add value.
Factors affecting understandability:
Preferences of the user;
Remembered knowledge;
Environmental factors;
Language.

31. Information Classifications
Considering the many characteristics of information, it can also be classified in numerous ways:
By source: e.g. internal, external, primary, secondary, Government
By nature: e.g. quantitative, qualitative, formal, informal
By level: e.g. strategic, tactical, operational
By time: e.g. historical, present, future
By frequency: e.g. continuous (real time), hourly, daily, monthly, annually
By use: e.g. planning, control, decision making
By form: e.g. written, aural, visual, sensory
By occurrence: e.g. at planned intervals, occasional, on demand
By type: e.g. detailed, summarised, aggregated, abstracted

32. Functions performed by information
The reduction of uncertainty
As an aid to monitoring and control
As a means of communication
As a memory supplement
As an aid to simplification

33. Information Life-Cycle
Stages of information management – i.e. from the point of creation till it is discarded.
Robek, et al. (1996):
Production
Dissemination and use
Storage and Provision for current access
Decisions on the retention/destruction
Archiving of documents.

34. US Commission on Federal Paperwork (1977):
Requirements determination
Collection
Processing
Use
Disposition

35. Public Works & Government Services - Canada

36. Integrated Cycle Creation Processing Dissemination/ Disposition
Distribution
Use
Storage &
Retrieval
Disposition
Creation