1. The 5 Canons of Rhetoric and Aristotle’s Classic Model
A.P Language and Composition
The Art of Persuasion

2. Rhetoric
Every time we use language--in speech or in writing--we engage in a rhetorical act.
Another way of saying this would be to say that all communication is rhetorical.
Whenever we use language, we have an intention--a message to communicate or a goal to achieve.
All of us behave rhetorically every time we use language. In fact, a useful modern definition of rhetoric is simply the intentional use of language to influence an audience.

3. History of Rhetoric
During the 4th century B.C., Aristotle wrote the Rhetoric in which he defined rhetoric as discovering all available means of persuasion on a topic.
Thus, for Aristotle, rhetoric has a clear persuasive function, but also an epistemic function--it serves as a way to discover what is known and what can be known about a subject.

4. The 5 Canons of Rhetoric
Invention
Arrangement
Style
Memory
Delivery

5. Canon # 1 Invention (Inventio)
In the canon of invention, a writer is looking for a starting point—how to come up with what he or she wants to write.
Invention is the art of finding arguments in any situation and developing material.
Determining the Rhetorical Situation: purpose (exigence), audience, and constraints

6. Canon #2 Arrangement (Dispositio)
In the second canon, the writer accomplishes his or her purpose using Patterns of Arrangement aka Rhetorical Modes.
More than one pattern can, and usually does, appear in essays. Principles of arrangement help a writer plan order, structure, and support the parts of the piece of writing.
More on this later…

7. Patterns of Arrangement
Exemplification
Compare/Contrast
Cause/Effect
Classification
Process Analysis
Definition
Narration

8. Canon #3 Style (Elecutio)
In the third canon, writers make choices regarding words, phrases, and sentences.
Conscious choice about stylistic decisions in writing can help writers reflect themselves, communicate meaning, and influence readers.
What does this include?? Schemes and Tropes: Diction, syntax, tone, figurative language, EPL, etc. all depending on the situation…

9. Canon #4 Memory (Memoria)
“Fixing” the words and proofs in the mind, an art of recall
Classically, the memorization of speeches
Using mnemonic devices (using ideas that are familiar to recall ideas and words that are unfamiliar)

10. Canon #5 Delivery (Pronuntio)
Includes:
Stylistic choices in speeches (voice inflection)
Setting off words in writing
The look of the final published product—the medium of publication: written, visual, spoken
The sound of the final delivered presentation

11. Write in the 21st Century
Writing is one of the world’s oldest technologies
Writing is both visual and verbal
Writing is multilingual
Writing can reach massive audiences (in a very short time)
Writing is primarily public from: p 27 EDW

12. When Writing an Argument
You are attempting to convince readers of something…
Change their minds
Urge them to do something
Address a problem where no simple solution exists

13. Six Elements of Classical Argument
(Goes With Canon #2)
1) Exordium/Introduction: captures attention of audience; urges audience to consider your case
2) Narratio/Statement of Background: narrates the key facts and/or events leading up to your case
3) Divisio/Proposition: states the position you are taking, based on the information you’ve already presented, and sets up the structure of the rest of your argument

14. Six Elements of Classical Argument (Cont.)
4) Confirmatio/Proof: discusses your reasons for your position and provides evidence to support each reason
5) Confutatio/Refutation: anticipates opposing viewpoints; then demonstrates why your approach is the only acceptable one (i.e. better than your opponents’)
6) Peroratio/Conclusion: summarizes your most important points and can include appeals to feelings or values (pathos)

15. When Writing an Argument
Who is your audience?
Scholars?
Fellow Students?
Collegues?
Children?
Write to your particular audience

16. When Writing an Argument
Shape your appeal to your audience
Establish common ground
Respect your audience’s interests and views
Choose examples the audience can relate to
Use language appropriate to your audience

17. Audience p27 EDW What is your topic or message?
What is your relationship to your audience?
What are your values & beliefs?
Your audience’s?
You & your audience’s background knowledge?
Time and space limitations?
Purpose?
Appropriate level of language?

18. What do you the language you use to do?
Analyze?
Classify?
Compare? Contrast?
Define? Describe? Discuss?
Explain? Survey?
Prove?

19. The Argument p70 EDW “…all language has an argumentative edge.”
Do not assume that all writers agree with you!
“What one [person] might call a massive demonstration another might call a noisy protest, and yet another an angry march…”

20. Analyzing the Argument p71 EDW
What is the main issue (stasis)
What emotional, ethical and logical appeals can you use?
How can you establish your credibility?
What sources do you have?
How current and reliable are they?
Does your thesis reflect your claim accurately?
How can you use visuals to support your argument?

21. When Writing an Argument
Stasis Theory (stasis = stand)
Did the act occur?
How is the act defined?
How important or serious is the act?
What actions should be taken as a result of this act?

22. When Writing an Argument
Reason :: Logic
Emotion :: Values
Character :: Credibility :: Ethics
LOGOS :: PATHOS :: ETHOS

23. Logos :: Pathos :: Ethos
The appeal to reason (logic)
Pathos
The appeal to emotion (values)
Ethos
The appeal to character (ethics)

24. When Writing an Argument
Logos :: reason
“The facts don’t lie”
Use of evidence
Trustworthy sources
Clearly defined terms

25. When Writing an Argument
Pathos :: emotion of the reader
Reminds us of deeply held values
Stirs reader’s emotions
Creates a strong emotional appeal

26. When Writing an Argument
Ethos :: character of the writer
The credibility, moral character, and goodwill of the writer (ethics)
Knowledgeable on the subject?
Trustworthy?
In the best interest of the audience?

27. When Writing an Argument
Identify the elements of an argument
Most arguments share a claim, reasons for that claim, warrants (assumptions) which connect the claim to the reasons, evidence (facts, credible opinions, examples, statistics), and qualifiers (limiting of the claim)

28. When Writing an Argument
Identify the elements of an argument
Claim
Reasons, for that claim
Warrants or assumptions, which connect the claim to the reasons
Evidence, facts, credible opinions, examples, statistics
Qualifiers, limits of the claim

29. When Writing an Argument
Recognize Fallacies
Serious Flaws
Barriers to common ground and understanding
Pages The Everyday Writer
Emotional, ethical, logical fallacies

30. Recognizing Fallacies
Emotional
Bandwagon appeal, flattery, in-crowd appeal, veiled threats, false analogies
Ethical
Ad hominem, guilt by association, false authority
Logical
Begging the question, post hoc fallacy, non sequitur, either-or, hasty generalization, oversimplification

31. When Writing an Argument
Demonstrating Knowledge
Using credible sources
Demonstrating Fairness
Considering the other side in your paper adds to your credibility

32. Organizing an Argument
The Classical System
1. Introduction
2. Background
3. Lines of Argument
4. Alternative arguments
5. Conclusion

33. Organizing an Argument
The Toulmin System
1. Make your claim
2. Qualify your claim
3. Present good reasons as support
4. Explain the underlying assumptions
5. Provide additional evidence
6. Acknowledge possible counter arguments
7. Draw your conclusions

34. When Making Presentations of your finished Arguments
Know your material
Practice, practice, practice
Helps you be more comfortable on presentation day
Make Eye Contact
Adds to your credibility
Lets the listeners know you know your stuff

35. The 5 Canons of Rhetoric
Invention
Arrangement
Style
Memory
Delivery

36. When Making Presentations of your finished Arguments
Who is your audience?
How should you dress?

37. Rhetoric in Ads
Every ad is a mini-essay, an argument crafted to appeal to a particular audience.
DIDLS – diction, images, details, language and sentence structure – will be used as a strategy for analysis.

38. Appealing to Your Audience
When analyzing someone else’s argument or constructing your own, always ask yourself these questions:
Who is the speaker?
Who is the speaker or author’s intended audience?
How do I know who the audience is?
How has the audience influenced the speaker or author’s choice of argumentative strategies?

39. Logos - Logic
Loosely defined, logos refers to the use of logic, reasons, facts, statistics, data, and numbers. Logical appeals are aimed at the mind of the audience, their thinking side. Very often, logos seems tangible and touchable. When a speaker or writer uses logical appeals, he or she will avoid inflammatory language, and the writer will carefully connect its reasons to supporting evidence. Ask yourself why the author or speaker is using logos?
Advantages: provides evidence for major decisions Disadvantages: can demand a high degree of reader attention

40. Logos - Logic
Here are some, but not all, techniques that are used in this type of appeal:
test results
standard research findings
surveys
eyewitness testimony
logical reasons why your audience should believe you (keep in mind that not all reasons are equally persuasive for all audiences).
evidence that proves or explains your reasons
facts – using information that can be checked by testing, observing firsthand, or reading reference materials to support an opinion.
statistics – percentages, numbers, and charts to highlight significant data
expert opinion – statements by people who are recognized as authorities on the subject.
examples – giving examples that support each reason
use of cause and effect, compare and contrast, and analogy

41. Pathos - Emotion
Arguments from the heart are designed to appeal to the audience’s emotions and feelings. Emotions can direct people in powerful ways to think more carefully about what they do. In hearing or reading an argument that is heavy on emotional appeals, ask yourself these questions: How is the speaker or author appealing to the audience’s emotions? Why? Always try to name the emotions being appealed to (love, sympathy, anger, fear, hate, patriotism, compassion) and figure out how the emotion is being created in the audience

42. Pathos - Emotion
Emotional appeals are often just examples - ones chosen to awaken specific feelings in an audience. Although frequently abused, the emotional appeal is a legitimate aspect of argument, for speakers and authors want their audience to care about the issues they address.
Most common emotions appealed to include
Creativity – desire for recognition by self-expression
Achievement – the need to attain money, fame, or fulfillment
Independence -- the drive to be unique, to stand out, to be individual
Conformity – the desire to be included
Endurance – to achieve satisfaction by bearing burdens others could not
Fear – to resist, avoid, or defeat threats to the self or society
Advantages: produces immediate results.
Disadvantages: limited impact, can backfire, limited factual support

43. Pathos - Emotion
Here are some, but not all, techniques that are used in this type of appeal:
creativity – may use humor, word play, etc. to invoke positive emotions
moving stories and anecdotes that prove your opinion
music, color, art
using emotional language or “catchy words” to appeal to people’ s values or guilty consciences or vivid description.
slanting . Omitting or not using information that may conflict with or weaken the author’s opinion.
predicting extreme outcomes of events/dire predication in order to create a sense of urgency
specific examples

44. Ethos - Ethics
Ethical appeals depend on the credibility or training of the author. Audiences tend to believe writers who seem honest, wise, and trustworthy. An author or speaker exerts ethical appeal when the language itself impresses the audience that the speaker is a person of intelligence, high moral character and good will. Thus a person wholly unknown to an audience can by words alone win that audience’s trust and approval.
Aristotle emphasized the importance of impressing upon the audience that the speaker is a person of good sense and high moral character.
Advantages: can be very powerful, if the audience shares standards Disadvantages: depends on readers who accept similar principles

45. Ethos - Ethics
Here are some, but not all, techniques that are used in this type of appeal:
Religion – the desire to follow the rules and behavior of one’s faith
Patriotism – the urge to place one’s country before personal needs
Standards – the desire to be a good citizen, good student, good parent, etc.
Humanitarianism – secular appeal to help others, save the environment, help the helpless, etc.

46. Argument v. Persuasion Argument vs. Persuasion Argument Persuasion
From Sara Hayes Website: <
Argument v. Persuasion
Argument
Persuasion
Gain legitimacy
Purpose
Gain consent
Convince of credibility
Motivate to action/non-action
Appeal to logic
Method
Appeal to values, desires, emotions
Formal
Usage
Informal
Non-standard
Data Informed sources
Concession for legitimacy
Definition (generic audience)
Characteristics
Illustrations
Assertiveness
Jargon
Euphemisms
Overstatement/understatement
“Common man”
Specific audience
Connotation
Summary (repetition of arguments
Endings
Often direction – action/non-action
Logically – often linear organization, i.e. most to least/least to most
Clear assertions – often at beginning first third
Organization
Organization development for building emotion
Relate to reader then charged examples Assertions often implied