1. Forgetting

2. Encoding Failure

3. Retrieval Failure
The memory was encoded and stored, but sometimes you just cannot access the memory.

4. Types of Retrieval Failure 3
Proactive Interference
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
If you call your new girlfriend your old girlfriend’s name.

5. Proactive interference examples 3
Prior learning interferes with new information
Name of old girlfriend – confused with name of new girlfriend
Old locker combination – prevents learning new combination
Old cell phone number – prevents learning new cell phone number

6. Types of Retrieval Failure 5
Retroactive Interference
The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
When you finally remember this years locker combination, you forget last years.

7. Retroactive interference 4
New learning interferes with recall of old information.
In both types – material was encoded – retrieval is problem
Can you remember:
Your freshman locker combination
What numbers do you need:
Locker comb
Network password
Cafeteria account
Gym locker comb

8. Figure Proactive and retroactive interference Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

9. Measures of Memory 6
In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.)
The capital of France is ______.

10. Measures of Memory 7
In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.)
Name the capital of France.
Brussels
Rome
London
Paris

11. Recall versus Recognition
I probably cannot recall the Smurfs, but can I recognize them?
Lazy Smurf or Lethargic Smurf
Papa Smurf or Daddy Smurf
Handy Smurf or Practical Smurf
Brainy Smurf or Intellectual Smurf
Clumsy Smurf or Inept Smurf

12. Recall v. recognition 8 Recall: Recognition:
Retrieving the information without cues
Fill in the blanks
Recognition:
Retrieving the information with cues
Multiple choice tests; matching

13. What is happening at each stage – information drops off
Why do we forget? 9
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.
What is happening at each stage – information drops off

14. Storage Decay 10 Even if we encode something well, we can forget it.
Without rehearsal, we forget thing over time.
Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve.

15. Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus
( )

16. Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve 12

17. Ebbinghaus experiment 12
Studied forgetting
Studied memory over time using nonsense symbols
Spacing effect – better to study over time
Notice the drop off in learning
Example: studying spelling for a test
Need to use material in context – helps one to remember it
Study over time – better to study in 20 – 30 minute blocks at a time and then take a break
Better encoding and retrieval

18. Motivated Forgetting 13 We sometimes revise our own histories.
Honey, I did stick to my diet today!!!!!!

19. Motivated Forgetting 14 One explanation is REPRESSION:
Why does it exist?
One explanation is REPRESSION:
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories from consciousness.

20. Motivated Forgetting 15
Motivated Forgetting: People unknowingly revise their memories.
Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
OBJECTIVE 22| Summarize Freud's concept of repression, and state whether this view is reflected in current memory research.
Culver Pictures
Sigmund Freud

21. Why do we forget? 15 Painful experiences
Enables us to do this again
Childbirth, surgery
Repressed memories can lead to psychological problems
Traumatic experiences
Fires, accidents, deaths
Self preservation

22. Source Amnesia 16 (Source Attribution)
Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about or imagined.

23. Attribution 16 We protect ourselves Example:
Fundamental attribution error
I blame the situation
Others blame me
Example:
Basketball game
Missed free throw to win the game
Me: ref didn’t call a foul
Others: you should have made the shot

24. Anterograde Amnesia 17
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia.
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Surgery

25. 50 First Dates 17 Anterograde amnesia:
She remembered everything before and kept reliving the same day.
H.M. – now deceased – his brain is currently being sliced up for study in a research lab

26. Déja Vu 18
Déja Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.
© The New Yorker Collection, Leo Cullum from
cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved

27. Other memory problems 18 Tip of the tongue phenomenon
Retrieve features – not all of the concepts
Retrieve incomplete information
Can’t remember the test information – know that it is in your notes
Mood congruent memory
Recall experiences consistent with mood
Upset – remember the bad times
Happy – remember the good times

28. Measures of Memory 19
In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time.
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite …
Silk
Frog
Ring
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite …
Silk
Frog
Ring
Original
Trials
Relearning
Trials
1 day later
Saving
X 100
Relearning
Trials 10 5
X 100 10
It took 10 trials
to learn this list
It took 5 trials
to learn the list
50%

29. Relearning
Encoding material should mean that it is easier to relearn
Review for AP test
You knew it once, it should come back
Advantage of classes with concepts that build on another –
Math classes should work like this
Problem – retrieval miscues can get in the way.

30. Misinformation Effect 20
Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
My parents told me for years I met Guidry.
I have the memory- but it never happened!!!

31. Misinformation 20 We tend to revise “history” as we retell a story.
What happens with gossip? We repeat stories and each time the story changes a bit?
What happens with events like the Christmas Day bombing? How many different stories of what happened?
This is call reconstructive memory.
If we don’t remember something – we add additional information.

32. Memory Construction 21
We sometimes alter our memories as we encode or retrieve them.
Your expectations, schemas, environment may alter your memories.

33. Constructed Memories 22
Loftus’ research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories.
Don Shrubshell

34. Elizabeth Loftus 22 Studied eyewitness testimony
Accuracy of eyewitness testimony influenced by way questions are phrased.
Children are susceptible to having false memories planted
Little correlation between witness certainty and witness accuracy
Witnesses who believe they are correct – no more likely to be correct than those who are not sure.

35. Childhood memories 22 Consensus on childhood abuse and memories
Incest and other sexual abuse happens.
People may forget.
Recovered memories are common.
Recovered memories under drugs or hypnosis are unreliable.
Memories of things happening before age 3 – unreliable
Memories – real or false – are emotionally upsetting.

36. Misinformation Effect 23
Depiction of Accident

37. Misinformation Effect 24
Leading Question: About how fats were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

38. Misinformation effect 23
Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned.
People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions.
We don’t like gaps – we have to fill in.
We don’t remember what happened when questioned – we add information.
What color was the traffic light when the accident happened?
Don’t know – will say red/ yellow/ green

39. Figure Memory construction Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

40. Memory Construction 24
A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).