1. Motivation Chapter 5 McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2014 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Learning Objectives
Describe the role that need deficiencies play in motivating employees.
Compare the major differences between the four content approaches of motivation.
Give examples of how the three process approaches affect employee motivation.
Examine how the changing nature of the psychological contract influences employee motivation.
Summarize the action steps that managers can take to motivate employees.

3. Introduction Ability Instinct
More than motivation plays a role in performance
Ability
Instinct
Aspiration level
Personal factors (age, education, background)

4. EXHIBIT 5.1 Determinants of Job Performance

5. Determinants of Job Performance
Motivation Components
Direction
Persistence
Intensity

6. Needs Motivate Employees
Most managers must motivate a diverse and unpredictable group of people
They have varying needs and goals
Needs
Deficiencies an individual experiences at a particular time
May be physiological, psychological, or sociological
Those with deficiencies are more susceptible to motivational efforts

7. Needs Motivate Employees
Needs trigger tension and a search for ways to reduce it
A course of action is selected
Goal-directed behavior occurs
The behavior triggers either a reward or punishment
The deficiencies are reassessed

8. EXHIBIT 5.2 The Motivational Process: A General Model

9. Content theories focus on
Motivation Theories
Content theories focus on
Factors within the person
The needs that motivate people
Process theories describe, explain, and analyze how behavior is…
Energized
Directed
Sustained
Stopped

10. EXHIBIT 5.3 Managerial Perspective of Content and Process Theories of Motivation

11. Content Motivation Theories
Maslow’s need hierarchy
Alderfer’s ERG theory
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
McClelland’s learned needs theory

12. EXHIBIT 5.4 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Related to the Job

13. The Need-Hierarchy Approach
A satisfied need ceases to motivate
Unsatisfied needs can cause frustration, conflict, and stress
People have a need to grow and develop; they strive to move up the hierarchy

14. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Need-hierarchy issues
Little data proves that a needs hierarchy exists
Only two needs levels exist: physiological and then all others
Security needs decrease as managers advance
With a corresponding increase in need for social interaction, achievement, and self-actualization

15. Alderfer’s ERG needs correspond to Maslow’s hierarchy
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Alderfer’s ERG needs correspond to Maslow’s hierarchy
Existence = physiological and safety
Relatedness = belongingness, social, love
Growth = esteem and self-actualization
A frustration-regression process exists
If one continually fails to satisfy growth needs, relatedness needs reemerge
Efforts will be redirected toward satisfying a lower-order need

16. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
A content theory with two motivation factors
Dissatisfiers-satisfiers (hygiene factors)
Salary, job security, working conditions, status, company procedures, interpersonal relations
Satisfiers-motivators (intrinsic conditions)
The job content, achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, possibility of growth

17. EXHIBIT 5.5 Traditional versus Herzberg View of Job Satisfaction

18. Criticisms of Herzberg’s Theory
Over-simplifies the nature of job satisfaction
Requires people to look at themselves retrospectively
Only self-reports of performance over long period of time were used in original study
Little testing of motivational and performance consequences of the theory

19. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Job enrichment
Builds personal achievement, recognition, challenge, responsibility, and growth opportunities into a job
Increases individual motivation by providing more discretion and accountability

20. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
McClelland believes needs are acquired from culture
Need for achievement (n Ach)
Need for affiliation (n Aff)
Need for power (n Pow)
When a need is strong, there is motivation to use behavior that leads to its satisfaction

21. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
Factors reflecting a high n Ach
Likes to take responsibility for solving problems
Sets moderate achievement goals and takes calculated risks
Desires feedback on performance

22. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
Factors reflecting a high n Pow
Concentrates on obtaining and exercising power and authority
Concerned with influencing others and winning arguments
Power can be negative or positive

23. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
Factors reflecting a high n Aff
Desires social interaction
Concerned about the quality of personal relationships
Social relationships take precedence over task accomplishment

24. Criticisms of Learned Needs Theory
Supporting evidence supplied by McClelland and his associates
Use of projective psychological personality tests has been questioned as being unscientific
Claim that n Ach can be learned runs counter to a large body of literature that argues the acquisition of motives normally occurs in childhood and is very difficult to alter in adulthood
No proof that acquired needs are permanently acquired

25. EXHIBIT 5.6 A Graphic Comparison of Four Content Approaches to Motivation

26. Process Theories of Motivation
Content theories focus primarily on the needs and incentives that cause behavior
They try to explain how behavior is energized, directed, maintained, and stopped
The process theories of motivation are concerned with answering the questions of how individual behavior is energized, directed, maintained, and stopped.
Expectancy theory
Equity theory
Goal-setting

27. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Employees are more likely to be motivated when they perceive that effort = successful performance + desired rewards and outcomes
Motivation is a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity
Most behaviors are under the voluntary control of the individual and consequently are motivated

28. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Instrumentality
The perception that first-level outcomes (performance) are tied to second-level outcomes (rewards or punishment)
Valence
An individual’s preferences for outcomes
Expectancy
Belief that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular outcome

29. EXHIBIT 5.7 Expectancy Theory

30. Equity Theory
One’s perception of being treated fairly in social exchanges can influence motivation
Equity exists when one perceives that the ratio of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) equals the ratios of other employees

31. Important Equity Theory Terms
Person
The individual for whom equity or inequity is perceived
Comparison Other
Any group or persons used as a referent by Person, regarding the ratio of inputs and outcomes
Inputs
The individual characteristics brought by Person to the job
Outcomes
What Person received from the job

32. EXHIBIT 5.8 The Equity Theory of Motivation

33. Change Procedures to Restore Equity
Changing inputs
Changing outcomes
Changing attitudes
Changing the reference person
Changing the inputs or outcomes of the reference person
Leaving the field

34. Organizational Justice
The degree to which individuals feel fairly treated at the workplace

35. Exhibit 5.9 Four Dimensions of Organizational Justice

36. Organizational Justice
Positive Reactions to Procedural Justice
Organizational commitment
Intent to stay with the organization
Organizational citizenship
Trust in supervisor
Satisfaction with decision outcome
Work effort
Performance

37. People are more inclined to interpret decisions as fair when…
Procedural Justice
People are more inclined to interpret decisions as fair when…
They have a voice in the decision
Decision making is consistent
The process and procedures conform to ethical and moral values

38. Procedural Justice Why does it work? Self-interest Theory Group Theory
People want fair procedures because it enables them to obtain desired extrinsic outcomes
Group Theory
Fair group procedures are a sign of respect and an indication that group members are valued

39. Interpersonal justice
Procedural Justice
Interpersonal justice
Judgments made by employees as to whether they feel they are treated fairly
Perceptions of justice are higher when employees are treated with dignity and respect
Abusive supervisors are common
Employees who experience bullying and incivility are more likely to quit

40. Informational justice
Procedural Justice
Informational justice
Perceived fairness of the communication provided to employees from authorities
Keep many channels open and communicate frequently
Utilize informal chats
Don’t sugarcoat bad news

41. Goal Setting
A goal is a result that a person or group is trying to accomplish through behavior and actions
Locke’s view…
An individual’s conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior
Once a person starts something, he/she pushes on until a goal is achieved
Harder goals result in higher levels of performance if the goals are accepted by the individual

42. Goal Setting Terms Goal specificity Goal difficulty Goal intensity
the degree of quantitative precision (clarity) of the goal.
Goal difficulty
the degree of proficiency or the level of performance that is sought.
Goal intensity
pertains to the process of setting the goal or of determining how to reach it.
Goal commitment
the amount of effort used to achieve a goal.

43. EXHIBIT 5.10 Goal Setting Applied to Organizations

44. Motivation and the Psychological Contract
Exchange theory
Organizational members engage in reasonably predictable give-and-take relationships
Per Schein, the degree to which employees exert effort, commit to goals, and derive satisfaction from work depends on
The extent to which employee expectations match the organization’s expectations
The specific nature of what is exchanged

45. The Psychological Contract
Mutual expectations constitute part of the psychological contract
An unwritten agreement between the individual and the organization
Specifies what each expects to give and receive from the other
Can change over time
These implicit agreements may take precedence over written agreements

46. Psychological Contract Breach
A perception that the organization has failed to fulfill an unwritten exchange agreement.
A violation in the psychological contract can lead to decreased job satisfaction and citizenship behavior.

47. Reviewing Motivation
Managers can influence the motivation state of employees. If performance needs to be improved, then managers must intervene and help create an atmosphere that encourages, supports, and sustains improvement.
Managers should be sensitive to variations in employees’ needs, abilities, and goals. Managers also must consider differences in preferences (valences) for rewards.
Continual monitoring of needs, abilities, goals, and preferences of employees is each individual manager’s responsibility and is not the domain of personnel/human resource managers only.
Managers need to work on providing employees with jobs that offer task challenge, diversity, and a variety of opportunities for need satisfaction.

48. In Review, Can You…
Describe the role that need deficiencies play in motivating employees.
Compare the major differences between the four content approaches of motivation.
Give examples of how the three process approaches affect employee motivation.
Examine how the changing nature of the psychological contract influences employee motivation.
Summarize the action steps that managers can take to motivate employees.