1. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2. 7.2 The Vertebral Column General Characteristics
Extends from skull to pelvis
Also called spine or spinal column
Functions to transmit weight of trunk to lower limbs, surround and protect spinal cord, provide attachment points for ribs and muscles
Flexible curved structure contains 26 irregular bones called vertebrae in five major regions
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3. General Characteristics (cont.)
Regions and curvatures
Regions: ~28 long vertebral column broken into five major regions:
Cervical: consists of 7 vertebrae
Thoracic: 12 vertebrae
Lumbar: 5 vertebrae
Remember meal times: 7 am, 12 noon, and 5 pm
Sacrum: one bone, formed from fusion of several bones, articulates with hip
Coccyx: also fused bones that form terminus of column
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4. General Characteristics (cont.)
Curvatures: four main curves in the column help to increase resilience and flexibility of spine
Cervical and lumbar curvatures
Concave posteriorly
Thoracic and sacral curvatures
Convex posteriorly
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5. Figure 7.16 The vertebral column.2 3
Cervical curvature (concave)
7 vertebrae, C1: C7 4 5 6 7 T1
Spinous
process 2 3
Transverse
processes 4 5 6
Thoracic curvature
(convex)
12 vertebrae,
T1: T12 7 8 9
Intervertebral
discs 10 1 1
Intervertebral
foramen 12 L1 2
Lumbar curvature
(concave)
5 vertebrae, L1: L5 3 4 5
Sacral curvature
(convex)
5 fused vertebrae
sacrum
Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae
Anterior view
Right lateral view
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6. General Characteristics (cont.)
Ligaments: along with trunk muscles, help support vertebral column
Anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments: continuous bands from neck to sacrum that run down front and back of spine
Support and prevent hyperextension (backward) or hyperflexion (forward) bending
Ligamentum flavum: connects adjacent vertebrae
Short ligaments: connect each vertebra to those above and below
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7. Figure 7.17a Ligaments and fibrocartilage discs uniting the vertebrae.
Intervertebral
disc
Supraspinous ligament
Transverse process
Anterior
longitudinal
ligament
Sectioned
spinous process
Intervertebral foramen
Posterior longitudinal
ligament
Ligamentum flavum
Interspinous
ligament
Anulus fibrosus
Nucleus pulposus
Inferior articular process
Sectioned body
of vertebra
Median section of three vertebrae
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8. Figure 7.17b Ligaments and fibrocartilage discs uniting the vertebrae.
Posterior longitudinal
ligament
Anterior longitudinal
ligament
Body of a vertebra
Intervertebral disc
Anterior view of part of the spinal column
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9. General Characteristics (cont.)
Intervertebral discs
Cushionlike pad sandwiched between vertebrae that act as shock absorbers
Composed of two parts
Nucleus pulposus
Inner gelatinous nucleus
Gives disc its elasticity and compressibility
Anulus fibrosus
Outer collar composed of collagen and fibrocartilage
Limits expansion of nucleus pulposus when compressed
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10. Figure 7.17c Ligaments and fibrocartilage discs uniting the vertebrae.
Vertebral spinous process
(posterior aspect of vertebra)
Spinal cord
Spinal nerve root
Transverse
process
Herniated portion
of disc
Anulus fibrosus
of disc
Nucleus
pulposus
of disc
Superior view of a herniated intervertebral disc
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11. Figure 7.17d Ligaments and fibrocartilage discs uniting the vertebrae.
Nucleus
pulposus of
intact disc
Herniated
nucleus
pulposus
MRI of lumbar region of vertebral column in
sagittal section showing herniated disc
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12. Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.2
Severe physical trauma to spine may result in one or more herniated (prolapsed) discs
Usually involves rupture of anulus fibrosus, resulting in protrusion of nucleus pulposus, which can press on spinal cord or nerves, causing numbness or excruciating pain
Treatment: exercise, massage, heat, painkillers, or surgical intervention involving bone grafting to fuse adjoining vertebrae
Percutaneous laser disc decompression vaporizes part of disc; tears can be sealed electrothermally
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13. Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.2
Abnormal spinal curvatures can be congenital or result from disease, poor posture, or unequal pull of muscles on spine
Scoliosis: abnormal lateral rotation of spine, most often in thoracic region, which may lead to breathing difficulties
Kyphosis (hunchback): is abnormal dorsal thoracic curvature common in people with osteoporosis, tuberculosis of spine, rickets, or osteomalacia
Lordosis (swayback): is accentuated lumbar curvature that can result from disease but is also seen in men with pot bellies and in pregnant women
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14. Figure 7.18 Abnormal spinal curvatures.
Scoliosis
Kyphosis
Lordosis
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15. General Structure of Vertebrae
All have common structural pattern consisting of:
Body (centrum), the anterior weight-bearing region
Vertebral arch composed of:
Two pedicles: short pillars form sides of arch
Two laminae: fused, flattened plates form posterior arch
Vertebral foramen: enclosure formed by body and vertebral arch coming together
Vertebral canal: series of vertebral foramina
Intervertebral foramina: lateral openings between vertebrae for passage of spinal nerves
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16. Figure 7.19 Typical vertebral structures.
Posterior
Spinous
process
Transverse
process
Superior
articular
facet
and
process
Vertebral
arch
• Lamina
• Pedicle
Vertebral
foramen
Body
Anterior
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17. General Structure of Vertebrae (cont.)
Vertebrae have seven processes:
Spinous process: projects posteriorly
Transverse processes (2): project laterally
Superior articular processes (2): protrude superiorly
Inferior articular processes (2): protrude inferiorly
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18. Animation: Rotatable Spine (Horizontal)
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19. Animation: Rotatable Spine (Vertical)
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20. Regional Vertebral Characteristics
Cervical vertebrae
C1 to C7: smallest, lightest vertebrae
C3 to C7 share following features:
Oval-shaped body
Exception: C7 spinous processes are split (bifid)
Large, triangular vertebral foramen
Transverse foramen found in each transverse process for artery passageways
C7 is vertebra prominens; large and can be felt through skin, so used as a landmark
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21. Table 7.2-1 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae
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22. Table 7.2-2 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (continued)
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23. Table 7.2-3 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (continued)
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24. Figure 7.21a Posterolateral views of articulated vertebrae.
Dens of axis
Transverse ligament
of atlas
C1 (atlas)
C2 (axis) C3
Inferior articular
process
Bifid spinous
process
Transverse processes
C7 (vertebra
prominens)
Cervical vertebrae
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25. Regional Vertebral Characteristics (cont.)
Cervical vertebrae (cont.)
C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) have unique features
Atlas (C1)
No body or spinous process
Consists of anterior and posterior arches, and two lateral masses
Superior surfaces of lateral masses articulate with occipital condyles
Occipital condyles “carry” skull
Movement for nodding head “Yes”
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26. Figure 7.20a The first and second cervical vertebrae.
Posterior
Posterior tubercle
Posterior arch
Transverse foramen
Lateral
masses
Superior articular
facet
Anterior arch
Anterior tubercle
Superior view of atlas (C1)
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27. Figure 7.20b The first and second cervical vertebrae.
Posterior
Posterior tubercle
Posterior arch
Inferior
articular
facet
Transverse
process
Lateral
masses
Transverse foramen
Anterior arch
Facet for dens
Anterior tubercle
Inferior view of atlas (C1)
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28. Regional Vertebral Characteristics (cont.)
Axis (C2)
Has body and processes like other vertebrae
Major feature is knoblike dens that projects superiorly into anterior arch of atlas
Dens is the “missing” body of atlas
Dens is a pivot for rotation of atlas
Movement allows side to side rotation for saying “No”
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29. Figure 7.20c The first and second cervical vertebrae.
Posterior C2
Spinous process
Inferior
articular
process
Lamina
Pedicle
Superior
articular
facet
Transverse
process
Dens
Body
Superior view of axis (C2)
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30. Figure 7.20d The first and second cervical vertebrae.
Posterior
Transverse
foramen in
transverse
process
Spinous process
Superior
articular
facet
Dens
Body
Photo of axis (C2), superior view
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31. Figure 7.21a Posterolateral views of articulated vertebrae.
Dens of axis
Transverse ligament
of atlas
C1 (atlas)
C2 (axis) C3
Inferior articular
process
Bifid spinous
process
Transverse processes
C7 (vertebra
prominens)
Cervical vertebrae
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32. Regional Vertebral Characteristics (cont.)
Thoracic vertebrae
T1 to T12 increase in size and articulate with ribs
Unique characteristics:
Body is heart shaped with two small demifacets that articulate with ribs
T10 to T12 have only single facet, not two
Vertebral foramen is circular
Long, sharp spinous process points inferiorly
Transverse processes have transverse costal facets that articulate with ribs (except T11, T12)
Location of articular facets allows rotation of this area of spine
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33. Table 7.2-1 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae
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34. Table 7.2-2 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (continued)
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35. Table 7.2-3 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (continued)
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36. Figure 7.21b Posterolateral views of articulated vertebrae.
Superior articular
process
Transverse
process
Transverse
costal facet (for
tubercle of rib)
Intervertebral
disc
Body
Inferior costal
facet (for head
of rib)
Spinous
process
Inferior articular
process
Thoracic vertebrae
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37. Regional Vertebral Characteristics (cont.)
Lumbar vertebrae
L1 to L5 “small of back”; receives most stress, so bodies are massive
Other characteristics:
Short, thick pedicles and laminae
Flat, hatchet-shaped spinous processes point posteriorly
Vertebral foramen is triangular
Orientation of articular facets locks lumbar vertebrae together to prevent rotation
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38. Table 7.2-1 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae
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39. Table 7.2-2 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (continued)
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40. Table 7.2-3 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (continued)
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41. Figure 7.21c Posterolateral views of articulated vertebrae.
Superior
articular
process
Transverse
process
Body
Intervertebral
disc
Inferior
articular
process
Spinous
process
Lumbar vertebrae
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42. Regional Vertebral Characteristics (cont.)
Sacrum: triangular bone shapes posterior wall of pelvis; made from five fused vertebrae (S1–S5)
Superior articular process articulates with L5
Articulates inferiorly with coccyx and laterally with hip bones via its auricular surfaces, forming sacroiliac joints
Sacral promontory: anterosuperior margin
Transverse ridges mark lines of fusion
Anterior sacral foramina: lie at lateral ends of ridges; act as openings for nerves and vessels
Alae: winglike expansions
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43. Regional Vertebral Characteristics (cont.)
Sacrum (cont.)
Median sacral crest: roughened bumps on posterior midline and lateral sacral crest; roughened area seen laterally on posterior side
Posterior sacral foramina: large openings for sacral spinal nerves
Sacral canal: continuation of vertebral canal
Sacral hiatus: large opening at end of canal
Coccyx: tailbone formed from three to five fused vertebrae; articulates superiorly with sacrum
Very little function
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44. Figure 7.22a The sacrum and coccyx.
Sacral promontory
Ala
Body of
first
sacral
vertebra
Transverse ridges
(sites of vertebral
fusion)
Anterior
sacral
foramina
Apex
Coccyx
Anterior view
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45. Figure 7.22b The sacrum and coccyx.
Facet of superior
articular process
Body
Sacral
canal
Ala
Auricular
surface
Lateral
sacral
crest
Median
sacral
crest
Posterior
sacral
foramina
Sacral
hiatus
Coccyx
Posterior view
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46. 7.3 Thoracic Cage Composed of: Functions
Thoracic vertebrae posteriorly
Sternum and costal cartilages anteriorly
Ribs laterally
Functions
Protects vital organs of thoracic cavity
Supports shoulder girdles and upper limbs
Provides attachment sites for muscles of neck, back, chest, and shoulders
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47. Figure 7.23a The thoracic cage.
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch
Sternum
• Manubrium
• Sternal angle
• Body
• Xiphisternal
joint
True
ribs
(1–7)
• Xiphoid
process
False
ribs
(8–12)
Intercostal
spaces L1
Vertebra
Costal cartilage
Floating
ribs (11, 12)
Costal margin
Skeleton of the thoracic cage, anterior view
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48. Sternum Also called the breastbone; consists of three fused bones:
Manubrium: superior portion that articulates with clavicular notches and ribs 1 and 2
Body: midportion that articulates with costal cartilages of ribs 2 through 7
Xiphoid process: inferior end that is site of muscle attachment
Not ossified until ~age 40
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49. Sternum (cont.) Sternum has three important anatomical landmarks:
Jugular notch
Central indentation in superior border of manubrium
Sternal angle
Horizontal ridge across front of sternum
Xiphisternal joint
Point where sternal body and xiphoid process fuse
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50. Figure 7.23b The thoracic cage.
Jugular notch T3
Sternal angle T4
Heart
Xiphisternal
joint T9
Midsagittal section through the thorax, showing
the relationship of surface anatomical landmarks
of the thorax to the vertebral column
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51. Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.4
Xiphoid process projects posteriorly in some people
A blow to the chest (chest trauma) at the level of the xiphoid process can push process into underlying liver or heart
Can cause massive hemorrhaging
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52. Ribs 12 pairs form sides of thoracic cage
All attach posteriorly to bodies and transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae
True (vertebrosternal) ribs (pairs 1–7)
Attach directly to sternum by individual costal cartilages
False (vertebrochondral) ribs (pairs 8–10)
Attach indirectly to sternum by joining costal cartilage of rib above
Vertebral (floating) ribs (pairs 11–12)
No attachment to sternum
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53. Figure 7.23a The thoracic cage.
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch
Sternum
• Manubrium
• Sternal angle
• Body
• Xiphisternal
joint
True
ribs
(1–7)
• Xiphoid
process
False
ribs
(8–12)
Intercostal
spaces L1
Vertebra
Costal cartilage
Floating
ribs (11, 12)
Costal margin
Skeleton of the thoracic cage, anterior view
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54. Ribs (cont.) Main parts of rib:
Shaft: flat bone that makes up most of rib
Costal groove: houses nerves and vessels
Head (posterior end)
Articulates with facets (demifacets) on bodies of two adjacent vertebrae
Neck: constricted portion beyond head
Tubercle: knoblike structure lateral to neck
Articulates posteriorly with transverse costal facet of same-numbered thoracic vertebra
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55. Transverse costal facet (for tubercle of rib) Superior costal facet
Figure 7.24a Ribs.
Transverse costal facet
(for tubercle of rib)
Superior costal facet
(for head of rib)
Angle
of rib
Body of vertebra
Head of rib
Intervertebral disc
Neck of rib
Tubercle of rib
Shaft
Sternum
Cross-
section
of rib
Costal groove
Costal cartilage
Vertebral and sternal articulations of a typical true rib
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56. Superior view of the articulation between a rib and a
Figure 7.24b Ribs.
Articular facet
on tubercle of rib
Spinous process
Shaft
Transverse
costal facet
(for tubercle
of rib)
Ligaments
Neck of rib
Body of
thoracic
vertebra
Head of rib
Superior costal facet
(for head of rib)
Superior view of the articulation between a rib and a
thoracic vertebra
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57. Facets for articulation with vertebrae Articular facet on tubercle
Figure 7.24c Ribs.
Facets for articulation
with vertebrae
Articular facet
on tubercle
Shaft
Head
Neck
Junction with
costal cartilage
Costal groove
Angle of rib
A typical rib (rib 6, right), posterior view
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