2. Continuity and Change Identity achieved
Search for identity begins at puberty and continues much longer
Seeking to determine who they are still exists for most adults
At each stage, the outcome of earlier crises provides the foundation of each new stage (Erikson)

3. Let’s take a closer look!
Identity Achieved
Past as Prologue
In eight stages of development, Erikson associated each stage with a particular virtue and a type of psychopathology.
He proposed that earlier crises could reemerge, taking a specific form at each stage.
Listed on the next slide are some possible problems (not directly from Erikson) that could occur in emerging adulthood if earlier crises were not resolved.
Let’s take a closer look!

4. Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development

5. Cultural Identity
Aspects of identity change as the historical context changes-even as the search for self determination continues
Intermarriage between adults from diverse racial groups in U.S. has changed from 7% (1980) to 15% (2010)
Children are typically proud to be biracial
Bicultural identity correlates with healthy psychosocial development
Many emerging adults work to combine objective and subjective identity
Generally, having a firm identity frees a person to interact with people of other identities.

6. Cultural Identity
Ethnic identity plays a key role in preparation for adulthood.
Most emerging adults identify with very specific ethnic groups.
More than any other age group, emerging adults have friends with diverse backgrounds.
Ethnic identity may affect choices in language, manners, romance, employment, neighborhood, religion, clothing, and values.

7. Vocational Identity
Establishing a vocational identity is part of growing up.
Many go to college, as moratorium, and to prepare for a job
Temporary jobs are part of preparation
Young workers tend to take a series of temporary jobs and feel no loyalty to their employer in reaction to the current global economy
Development of work ethic continues to evolve throughout early adulthood

8. Happy at Work
John Holland’s six-part diagram helps job seekers realize that income and benefits are not the only goals of employment. Workers have healthier hearts and minds if their job fits their personal preferences.

9. Same Situation, Far Apart: Connecting with Their Generation
Neither of these young women considers her job a vocation, but both use skills and knowledge that few older adults have. The DJ (left) mixes music for emerging adults who crowd thousands of clubs in China to drink, dance, and socialize despite regulations that attempt to close down such establishments. More than 10,000 Apple Store “geniuses” (right) work at low pay to meet the booming young-adult demand for the latest social networking tools.

10. Personality in Emerging Adulthood
Rising self-esteem
Only a minority experience decline in self-esteem
Continuity and improvement in attitudes of young adults occur
Ability to set their own goals, make their own friends, and work toward whatever goals they seek strengthens self-esteem
Worthy People: This graph shows a steady, although small, rise in young adults’ sense of well-being from age 18 to age 24, as measured by respondents’ ratings of statements such as “I feel I am a person of worth.” The ratings ranged from 1 (complete disagreement) to 5 (complete agreement). The average rating was actually quite high at age 18, and it increased steadily over the years of emerging adulthood.
Source: Schulenberg et al., 2005, p. 424.

11. Personality in Emerging Adulthood
Worrisome children grow up
Many children with marked aggression and those with extreme shyness grow up with little pathology
Old patterns do not disappear completely, but behaviors are often modified
Increasing self-esteem of many emerging adults occurs as they are able to set their own goals, make their own friends, and work toward whatever goals they seek

12. Personality in Emerging Adulthood
Plasticity
Many children with marked aggression and those with extreme
Personality is not fixed by age 5, or 15, or 20
Openness to new experiences allows personality shifts and stimulates eagerness for more education

13. Intimacy Intimacy versus isolation
Erikson’s sixth psychosocial stage emphasizes that humans are social creatures.
Intimacy progresses from attraction to close connection to ongoing commitment.
Marriage and parenthood, as emerging adults are discovering, are only two of several paths to intimacy.
Each relationship demands some personal sacrifice, including vulnerability that brings deeper self-understanding and shatters the isolation of too much self-protection.

14. Intimacy
Friendship
Throughout life, friends defend against stress and provide joy.
Friends, new and old, are particularly crucial during emerging adulthood.
Most single young adults have larger and more supportive friendship networks than newly married young adults once did.

15. Intimacy Gender and Friendship
Men tend to share activities and interests and talk about external matters
But do not talk of failures or emotional problems
Demand less of their friends so they have more of them
Women tend to share secrets, reveal their weaknesses and problems and expect sympathy
Are more intimate and emotional
Gender and Friendship

16. Male-Female Friendships
Relationship between love and marriage depends on era and culture
3 patterns occurring roughly in thirds
Arranged marriages
Adolescents meet a select group and man asks woman’s parents for permission
People socialize with many and then fall in love and marry when they are able, the most common in Western cultures

17. Dimensions of Love
Robert Sternberg (1988) described three distinct aspects of love
Passion- an intense physical, cognitive and emotional onslaught characterized by excitement, ecstasy, and euphoria
Intimacy- knowing someone well, sharing secrets as well as sex
Commitment- grows gradually through decisions to be together, mutual care giving, kept secrets, shared possessions, and forgiveness

18. Sternberg’s Seven Forms of Love

19. Hookups Without Commitment
Involves sexual encounter with neither intimacy nor commitment
Estimated that about half of all emerging adults have hooked up
More common in younger college students than older; men than women; lonely than socially active
Social networks
Web site that allows users to publically share their lives and connect with large numbers of people
Major innovation of current cohort
Choice overload
Involves having so many possibilities that a thoughtful choice becomes difficult
May occur with matchmaking sites

20. Finding Each Other and Living Together
Cohabitation
Varies from nation to nation
Involves living with an unrelated person—typically a romantic partner—to whom one is not married
Prevalence and purpose
Most young adults in the U.S., England, and Northern Europe cohabit rather than marry before age 25.
Half of all cohabitating couples in the U.S. plan on marrying eventually.

21. More Together, Fewer Married
As you see, the number of cohabiting male–female households in the United States has increased dramatically over the past decades. These numbers are an underestimate: Couples who do not tell the U.S. Census takers that they are living together, or who cohabit within their parents’ households, or who are same-sex couples (not tallied until 2000) are not included here. In addition, most emerging adults who are not now cohabiting may begin to do so within a few years.

22. Cohabitation
Many emerging adults consider cohabitation to be an effective prelude to marriage.
Earlier research suggests that cohabitation does not necessarily prevent later marriage problem.
Churning relationships may evolve and often have high rate of verbal and physical abuse.
More current research reports less negative cohabitation effects.
Cohabitation is neither the ideal nor the marriage equivalent that many emerging adults believe.
At the start of any romantic relationship—dating, cohabiting, or marriage—happiness on all four indicators increased; at the end of any of these, happiness decreased. Compared to cohabitation, happiness of married couples increased more in the beginning and decreased more at separation.
Particularly problematic is churning, when couples live together, then break up, then come back together. Churning relationships have high rates of verbal and physical abuse.

23. Love You, Love You Not
Young adult relationships are often problematic, but churning correlates with the stormiest relationships, with half of churners fighting both physically and verbally.
In a random sample of unmarried emerging adults (half men, half from two-parent homes, two-thirds European American, all from Toledo, Ohio) who had had a serious dating or cohabiting relationship in the past 2 years, some (15 percent) had broken up and not reunited, some (41 percent) had been together without breaking up, and some (44 percent) were churners, defined as having broken up and gotten together again with their partner. As you see, young adult relationships are often problematic, but churning correlates with the stormiest relationships, with half of churners fighting both physically and verbally.

24. Changes in Historical Patterns
In the U.S.
Most adults aged are not married.
Compared to any year in the past, fewer adults are married and more are divorced.
Divorce rate is half the marriage rate (3.6 compared to 7.3 per 1000) because fewer people are getting married.
Women who have their first baby under age 30 are more often unmarried than married.

25. Changes in Historical Patterns
Changes in relationship between love and marriage: Patterns
Previously
About one-third of world’s families: Love does not lead to marriage because parents arranged marriages that joined two families together
About one-third of families: Adolescents met only a select group; young men asked young women’s father for her hand in marriage; parents supervised interactions
Final pattern: Relatively new; young people socialize; meet many others; expect to fall in love but not marry until independent
In developing nation: Blend of upper two often occurs; men usually has more say than women

26. Similarities and Differences
Similarity tends to solidify commitment, probably because similar people are likely to understand each other.
Homogamy
Marriage between people who tend to be similar (SES, goals, religion, attitudes, local origin, etc.)
Heterogamy
Marriage between people who tend to be dissimilar (interests, etc)
Social homogamy
The similarity of a couple’s leisure interests and role preferences

27. What Do You Think?
As women earn more money and men do more housework, increased shared responsibilities may increase marital satisfaction.
Although many aspects of marriage have changed over the decades (some increasing happiness, some not), in general, couples seem as happy with their relationship as they ever were.

28. Fair Fight?
Close relationships include passion and intimacy, which almost always leads to conflict at some point. Ideally, arguments should be dealt with using humor and love, yet if a woman is murdered, most likely her lover/husband is the killer. Does this mean that men are particularly hot-headed or that women are particularly infuriating?

29. Conflict Learning to listen Demand/withdraw interaction
Situation in a romantic relationship wherein one person wants to address an issue and the other refuses
Women tend to be more demanding and men withdrawing

30. Conflict Intimate partner violence
Emerging adults experience more partner violence than those over 25.
Alcohol and drugs make violence more likely and more severe.
Rates are high and would be higher if self-deception and dishonesty weren’t factors but would be lower if preventative measures were in place.

31. Intimate Partner Violence
Researchers differentiate two forms of partner abuse
Situational couple violence
Fighting between romantic couples that is brought on more by the situation than by personality problems
Intimate terrorism
Violent and demeaning form of abuse in a romantic relationship where the victim is too scared to fight back, seek help, or withdraw

32. Emerging Adults and Their Parents
Linked lives
Where the success, health, and well-being of each family member are connected to those of other members
Financial support
Parents of all income levels in the U.S. help their adult children.
Global perspective
Parental support and linked lives are typical everywhere. In some countries, it is valued more than in others (i.e. Italy vs. Great Britain).

33. Valuable, but Increasingly Unaffordable
This chart shows percent of increase, compared to 1983 (set at 100 percent), when public education was supported primarily by public funds, with low tuition for students.

34. Problems with Parental Support
Young adults from low-income families
Likely to remain within the low-SES population
Parents cannot pay for college and living expenses during emerging adulthood
Helicopter parents
Hover over their emerging adult child, ready to swoop down if any problem arises
Differential treatment
May cause sibling rivalry or resentment