1. Imperial Powers and Decolonization Southern Africa: Nelson Mandela and the Fight for Freedom (1961 – 1994) (1918 – 2013)
April

2. South Africa

3. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
: Regional Context
Rhodesia feeling early African resistance: would declare UDI in 1965 [Case Study: Rhodesia]
Mozambique: ‘renewed colonialism’, continued use forced labour led to…
within two years: Liberation War launched by FRELIMO [Case Study: Mozambique]
South Africa argued: it was being ‘isolated’ by threat of Communist regimes on its borders

4. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
1960s: domestic context
response: ‘Grand Apartheid’
government escalated ‘group areas’, other racially based legislation to ‘separate development’
established ‘homelands’ (Bantustans), each specific to a single ‘tribe’, each administered locally
homelands to become independent countries

5. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Verwoerd : ‘Apartheid would bring equal rights to all – each in their own part of the country’

6. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
ANC turned to violence: formed armed wing -‘Umkhonto we Sizwe’ (MK – ‘Spear of the Nation): [see Umkhonto we Sizwe - ‘We are at War!’, Add’l Rdgs]

8. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Government Response:
1964: Mandela, other ANC leaders captured, tried for treason
imprisoned on Robben Island
ANC labeled Communist, Mandela ‘terrorist’:
challenged former, admitted latter as ‘necessary’
‘stage’: publicizing ANC battle, ideology

9. Nelson Mandela spent 25 years here, 1964-1989

10. Nelson Mandela in Prison (n.d.)

11. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Battle Against Apartheid in Exile Begins
difficult moving soldiers in, out South Africa
initial bases Zambia; after 1975 also Mozambique
sought financial support in West: difficult as
many accepted profiling of ‘Communist’
still: ANC more organized, more successful than PAC (who declined in importance)

12. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Two decades ‘forced decolonization’ began:
1970s:
‘homelands-to-independence’: failure
more than 3 million Africans would have become ‘foreigners’ in South Africa
rights only in ‘homeland’ with ‘tribal’ passport

13. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
1970s: Key Changes
emergence first generation to pass through ‘Bantu Education’ (from 1950s/60s)
not accepting life of servitude: formed SASO
leader Stephen Biko: articulated powerful ideology ‘Black Consciousness’
‘black’ included Africans, Asians, Coloureds

14. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
“…Change the name and the story applies to you.
The dignity of the Black Man has been restored in Mozambique, and so shall it be here. Black must rule. We shall drive them [‘whites’] to the sea]. Long live Azania. Revolution!! [Samora] Machel will help! Away with Vorster Ban!
We are for Afro black Power!! Viva Frelimo. Power !!! We shall overcome.”
[quoted in Price, Aparthed State in Crisis, 52]

15. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Biko ‘banned’ 1973
by 1975: SASO banned from most campuses
1975-6: Biko arrested, tried
used trial to spread message within South Africa and internationally: ‘Africans’ need to reject idea that all that is good, is ‘white’
Need psychological liberation

16. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
“I think basically Black Consciousness refers itself to the black man and to his situation, and I think the black man is subject to two forces in this country.
He is first of all oppressed by an external world through institutionalized machinery, through laws that restrict him from doing certain things, through heavy work conditions, through poor education, these are all external to him and secondly, and this we regard as the most important, the black man in himself has developed a certain state of alienation, he rejects himself, precisely because he attaches the meaning white to all that is good…” [Steve Biko, in court, September 1974; BBC Story of Africa]

17. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Death in detention 1977 sparked outrage around world:
a new generation was willing to die for freedom: Steve Biko became one of many

19. BC poster (above) Biko’s Grave (right)

20. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
1976 SOWETO:
government reinforced necessity of learning/instructing in Afrikaans in all schools
many had been teaching in English, now forced to add Afrikaans: problem for teachers
Students: Afrikaans seen as language of ‘oppressors’

21. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
In township of SOWETO, hundreds of school children protested
fired on by police, several deaths
reactions from other students, township residents: government buildings burned

22. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Protests spread throughout country: tear-gas, bullets in response
world looking on
government response ‘why do they walk with upraised fists? Surely this is a sign of the Communist Party!’
174 killed at SOWETO, hundreds more over following months: government did not back down

23. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
parents became involved as they had not been since passive resistance 1950s
impact began to be felt on stock-market
Perhaps Apartheid could be ‘decolonized’ after all!

25. SOWETO

26. South Africa: Fighting for Freedom
1980s: dominated by rise of ‘black-on-black’ violence
ANC/PAC still in exile
1983: emergence United Democratic Front -- umbrella organization representing community organizations, some national groups
1985: emergence Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU)

28. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Inkatha: politicization of the Zulu
‘cultural’ society, largest single ethnic group leader: Mangosothu Buthelezi
previously ANC (youth league): rejected decision to use violence in 1960s
1970s, 80s: strategy -- work with government, increase power for Africans
but rejected independence for Zululand

30. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
1980s: escalation of violence
ANC ‘supporters’ (most of UDF) against Inkatha
former accused latter of ‘government support’, weakening resistance movement
targeted ethnic violence in townships: Zulu migrants in hostels, ‘neck-lacing’ of informers
culture of violence, intimidation, fear

31. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Government lost control:
some argue deliberately ‘turned state over’ to police: practiced indiscriminate raids, rape
and to Inkatha/Zulu: accusations government funding, inciting Inkatha violence
although Inkatha denied accusations, ANC stocking arms for major urban warfare

32. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
1986: Government declared State of Emergency
country demonstratively ungovernable
1987: secret talks began between government and Mandela
Buthelezi feared power sharing ‘deal’ that would exclude him: violence escalated

33. Opposition Becomes Public, including Media Censorship

34. “State of…
EMERGENCY!”

35. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Video (excerpt):
"Nelson Mandela's Fight for Freedom"
(4: :40min; full video recommended)

36. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Wider context:
- increasingly effective international demands for divestment, boycotting South African goods
- economy beginning to ‘hurt’

37. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Involvement in wars Angola (conscripted white South Africans), and Mozambique (backing RENAMO): expensive!!
Doubts that military service across borders really about protecting society from Communism surfacing among whites -- very publicly!

38. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
1989 ‘the wall came down’ (Berlin):
symbolic, real end to ‘communist’ USSR
pretense of ‘protecting democracy’ against communist southern Africa undermined
led to: Pres. De Klerk’s famous 1990 ‘State of the Union’ address [see ‘De Klerk Speech’, Add’l Rdgs]

39. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Stunned the Nation (no one forewarned):
announced ‘de-banning’ ANC and other political groups currently illegal
announced need to ‘take lead in developing Africa, working with African leaders’ (almost echoed MacMillan’s 1960 ‘Wind of Change’ speech) Most Unexpected and Controversial: Announced imminent freeing Nelson Mandela!

40. Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu, Robben Island (above)…
Nelson Mandela & Walter Sisulu, together again in Freedom (below) .
Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu, Robben Island (above)

41. Feb.11, 1990 [see ‘Mandela’s Address, Add’l Rdgs]

43. ANC supporters outside Victor Verster prison waiting to greet Nelson Mandela[ Nelson Mandela and the rise of the ANC. (London: Bloomsbury) 189.]

45. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
“The factors which necessitated the armed struggle still exist today. We have no option but to continue.” Called for:
freeing all, not only some, political prisoners
end to white monopoly political power
fundamental restructuring political, economic systems
addressing inequalities of apartheid: Full Democracy!

46. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
1992:- negotiated peace arranged (sticking point had been disarmament of ANC!)
[de Klerk (left); Mandela (right)]

47. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
: Negotiations continued with the government, leading towards democratic elections
Key pillars of Apartheid removed:
- Land Acts of 1913 and 1936
- Group Areas Act of 1950
- Population Registration Act of 1950

48. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Transition Period:
Violent conflict increased between ANC, Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP – now self-presenting as viable political opponent)
party continued to receive military, logistical, financial support from former apartheid regime

49. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
Transition Period:
Inter-group conflict daily in townships, on commuter trains
more than 15,000 people died
death toll was more than twice the entire death toll recorded since 1950

50. Dr. Mangosuthu Butilezi, President of the IFP
Revolution of Goodwill
“The IFP has committed itself to becoming the champion of a revolution of goodwill, which
spreads throughout the building
blocks of our society promoting
ndividual and collective dedication
to our families, work places and
communities.
The revolution is about building and reconstructing a new
country. It is about creating a
constant liaison between the
government and its communities.
And calls for sacrifices, social
discipline and hard work."
Dr. Mangosuthu Butilezi, President of the IFP

51. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
April 1993: Chris Hani assassinated
Former Sec.-Gen. South African Communist Party Umkonto we Sizwe

52. South Africa: fighting for Freedom
May 10, 1994: first ever democratic elections
Nelson Mandela ‘terrorist’, now President
Government of National Unity (GNU)
ministers ANC, IFP (Inkatha Freedom Party), Nationalist Party

53. First (fully) Democratic Election
Queue of Voters
(Argus, Cape Town) 1994

54. [see Obituaries in Add’l Rdgs]