1. Seeing and Thinking Sociologically
Chapter 2
Seeing and Thinking Sociologically

2. Society
Society—people living in the same geographic area who share a culture and a common identity and whose members fall under the same political authority
Macrolevel—broad social forces and structural features of society
Microlevel—immediate, everyday experiences of individuals

3. Top-down/Bottom-down
Top-down effect
A society influences its members through certain identifiable structural features and historical circumstances
Bottom-up effect
Each individual has a role in forming a society and influencing the course of its history

4. Individuals Structure Society
Through structured social movements
Through day-to-day communication, we construct, reaffirm, experience, and alter the reality of our society.
Although historical events themselves don’t change, their meaning and relevance do.

5. Society Influences the Individual
Through other individuals (social influence)
Through social interaction
Through social structure (societal influence)
Statuses/roles + groups + organizations + social institutions + culture = society

6. Thinking Sociologically
Ordinary people and cruel acts: What would you do?
Social psychologist Stanley Milgram (1974)
Impact of authority
Following orders
How do you know?

7. Status
Status: any named social position that people can occupy (e.g., mother, student, electrician)
Status can be ascribed or achieved
Ascribed status: acquired at birth or taken on involuntarily
Achieved status: earned or taken on voluntarily

8. Role
Set of rights, obligations, behaviors, and duties associated with a particular status
Role strain: when a person lacks the resources to fulfill the demands of a role
Role conflict: when the demands of one expected role clash with the demands of another expected role

9. Groups In-groups: when we belong and feel a sense of loyalty
Out-groups: when we don’t belong and feel some antagonism
Dyads and triads: groups of two or three people

10. Groups
Coalition: a subgroup of a triad formed when two members unite against the third member
Primary groups: long-time groups with strong direct attachment
Secondary groups: more formal and impersonal

11. Organizations and Social Institutions
Organizations: Large, complex network of positions, created for a specific purpose and characterized by a hierarchical division of labor
Social institutions: Stable set of roles, statuses, groups, and organizations that provides a foundation for behavior in some major area of social life
Examples: education, family, politics, religion, health care, or the economy

12. Culture
A society’s “personality”: the language, values, beliefs, rules, behaviors, and physical artifacts that characterize a society
Provide general rules to live by
Values: provide ways to judge or assess goals or outcomes for their lives

13. Culture
Globalization: managing culture and values in a connected world
Norms: culturally defined “rules” of conduct; expectations for behavior

14. Three Sociological Perpectives
Structural-functionalist perspective
Conflict perspective
Symbolic interactionist perspective
Macro- and micro-levels of analysis
Each has weaknesses

15. Structural-Functionalist Perspective
Macro-level analysis
Dominant theoretical tradition through much of the 20th century
Emphasizes how society is structured to maintain stability; emphasizes consensus and cooperation
Key theorists: Durkheim, Parsons, Merton

16. Assumptions of Structural Functionalism
Societies are integrated systems comprised of specialized parts that serve functions
Manifest, or intended
Latent, or unintended
Society is like an organism
Dysfunctional parts will gradually cease to exist

17. Conflict Perspective Macro-level of analysis
Addresses some deficiencies of S-F theory
Emphasizes power differentials, dominance and inequality
Key theorists: Marx, Dahrendorf, conflict-feminist theorists

18. Assumptions of Conflict Perspective
Societies are competitive arenas where groups are in a constant struggle for resources
Some groups benefit more from existing social arrangements than others, and will exercise their power to maintain the status quo
Change is inevitable

19. Symbolic Interactionism
Micro-level of analysis
Seeks to understand society by examining day-to-day interactions of people
Particular focus on language, gestures, and symbols and assigning meaning to situations
Key theorists: Blumer, Goffman

20. Assumptions of Symbolic Interactionism
Reality is a social construction
What one believes to be real is one’s own reality, and actions and reactions are based on that reality
The meaning that one attributes to a situation is largely based on past experiences
Change happens when one improves on a script

21. Theoretical Weaknesses
Structural-functionalism: does not address power differential, inequality, or social change
Conflict: lacks a strong explanation for social harmony and cohesion
Symbolic interactionism: has to be taken to the macro-level to see the connections of larger institutions