1. Finish: Consolidation of Memories . Begin: Memory in the Real World
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: John Miyamoto 05/08/2018: Lecture 07-2
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2. Lecture probably ends here
Outline
The cycle of consolidation
Autobiographical memory
Memory over the life-span; the reminiscence bump
Flashbulb memories
Memory schemas
Constructive memory
Eyewitness memory
Lecture probably ends here
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
The Cycle of Consolidation

3. The Cycle of Consolidation
Cycle of consolidation (JM’s term):
Repeatedly retrieving some memories.
Possibly modifying the memories.
Reconsolidating the memories, possibly with modifications.
The cycle of consolidation happens spontaneously in many different situations.
Image of a Man Thinking About an Argument with Significant Other
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18

4. Not-So-Instant Replay of Interpersonal Conflict
... I asked her why EFG? ...
... but she said ABC! ...
... so I said XYZ. ...
..., etc., etc., etc., ...
... she doesn’t care if PQR! ...
... she thinks JKL. ...
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Image of a Man Thinking About How to Compute a T-Test

5. Statistics Problem Solving
... Does it matter if the sample sizes are different? ...
... What’s the formula for SS Pooled? ...
..., etc., etc., etc., ...
... How do I calculate a T-test? ...
... What’s the difference between the standard deviation and the standard error? ...
... What are the degrees of freedom of SSpooled? ...
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Dwelling On Something Involves Lots of Retrievals

6. Dwelling on Something Usually Involves Lots of Retrieval
Retrieval creates the potential for modification of memories.
Retrieval-induced memory change happens often.
We spontaneously engage in thinking patterns that cause retrieval-induced memory change. This is the cycle of consolidation.
Retrieval induced memory change is a tool for better study habits.
Retrieval induced memory change is a tool for clinical modification of memories.
My Guess (only a guess):
* Retrieval-induced memory change is generally a beneficial adaptation.
* Occasionally it causes systematic errors and possible harm.
Start Autobiographical Memory
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

7. Autobiographical Memory (AM)
Autobiographical memories are memories of one's personal experiences and history.
Many autobiographical memories include episodic memories.
E.g., I remember listening to a lecture on statistical theory last week, i.e., I remember where I was sitting in the room, who was around me, etc.
Memory of a place might include a visual memory.
Memory of food might include visual or olfactory aspects.
Many autobiographical memories include semantic memories.
E.g., I remember the name of my elementary school, but the name isn’t connected to a particular experience.
E.g., memory of an your own actions might include a memory of why you were doing what you were doing, and whether the action was successful.
If using Spring 2014 or Winter 2013 slides as a basis for future P355 lectures, you should also look at Winter 2011 slides because material re everyday memory, autobiographical memory, schemas, and eyewitness memory was omitted from Winter 2012 and 2013 lectures due to lack of time (snow in 2012, expanded WM discussion in 2012).
E.g., material on lifetime retention functions and the reminiscence bump have been omitted.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Memory over the Life Span

8. Memory Over the Lifespan
What events are remembered well?
Significant events in a person’s life
Highly emotional events
Transition points (periods of rapid change in personal situation)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Reminiscence Bump

9. Reminiscence Bump
Procedure: Memories are cued by words that have been tested for producing many memories.
"movies", "riots", "storm", etc.
Method is a version of cued recall.
If a person over 40 years old is interviewed, typically most memories pertain to the recent past or to the period between 10 & 30 years of age.
The increase in memories for 10 – 30 years of age is called the reminiscence bump.
* Rubin, Rahhal, & Poon (1998) is an interesting paper. Check it out! <D:\pprs\memory\RubinDC Things Lrnd i Early Adulthood Are Remembered Best.pdf>
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Comparison Between Two Curves that Represent the Reminiscence Bump

10. Reminiscence Bump Types of Memories that Make Up the Reminiscence Bump
Goldstein Figure 8.3: Percentage of memories from different ages, recalled by a 55-year-old, showing the reminiscence bump. Based on Schrauf & Rubin (1998)
The figure on the right is from: Anderson, S. J., & Conway, M. A. (1997). Representation of autobiographical memories. In M. A. Conway (ed.), Cognitive models of memory,
I added the vertical red lines to the figure.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Types of Memories that Make Up the Reminiscence Bump

11. Types of Memories in the Reminiscence Bump
Rubin, Rahhal, & Poon (1998) find better memories during ages 10 – 30 for:
episodic memories.
autobiographical facts, e.g., personal preferences at the time.
memories for public events.
memories for songs and music.
memory for general knowledge learned at that time, e.g., Academy Awards or World Series results, other current events.
* Rubin, Rahhal, & Poon (1998) is an interesting paper. Check it out!
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Why Is There a Reminiscence Bump?

12. Why Is There a Reminiscence Bump?
Self-image hypothesis: Memory is strongest for events associated with personal identity formation.
Cognitive hypothesis: Encoding is better during periods of rapid change that are followed by stability.
Cultural life script hypothesis: There is a script for a typical life in a given culture. Memory is strongest for important events in this life script, e.g., graduation, getting a job, marriage, (often in the 10 – 30 period).
Figure 8.4. Frequency of memories over the lifespan.
Red line – standard result.
Blue dotted line – Hispanics who emigrated to U.S. at age 34 – 35.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Brief Comment re Childhood Amnesia

13. Childhood Amnesia Childhood amnesia What causes childhood amnesia?
Relatively few memories before the age of 10
Especially few before the age of 2 or 3
What causes childhood amnesia?
Hypothesis: Immature brain, especially hippocampus & prefrontal cortex.
Hypothesis: Immature language
Hypothesis: Immature self-concept
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Summary re Memory over the Lifespan

14. Summary: Life Span Autobiographical Memory
Three main periods
Childhood Amnesia: Why does childhood amnesia occur?
Remiscence Bump: Why is there a reminiscence bump?
Normal forgetting in later life. Forgetting happens (no kidding!)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Outline – Flashbulb Memory Topic

15. Flashbulb Memories (FBM's)
Hypothesis: Memory for a dramatic or shocking event is preserved as if a photographic image was made by using a flashbulb with a camera.
Do you remember where were you and what were you doing when you first heard about the attack on the World Trade Center?
Do you have memories of a major accident, e.g., a car accident?
QUESTIONS:
Do flashbulb memories differ in strength from regular memories? How do they change over time?
Do flashbulb memories involve different memory mechanisms from those that create or maintain ordinary memories?
If using Spring 2014 or Winter 2013 slides as a basis for future P355 lectures, you should also look at Winter 2011 slides because material re everyday memory, autobiographical memory, schemas, and eyewitness memory was omitted from Winter 2012 and 2013 lectures due to lack of time (snow in 2012, expanded WM discussion in 2012).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
What Creates Autobiographical Memories that Lasts a Long Time?

16. What Creates AM’s that Last a Long Time?
Self-generation of associations (connecting a memory to other knowledge)
Distinctiveness
Personal importance causes repeated retrievals of a memory. Consolidation & reconsolidation.
Distributed practice as opposed to massed practice
Strong emotions enhance memory
Hamann, Ely, Grafton, & Kilts (1999): PET study. Showed subject very pleasant, very unpleasant and neutral pictures.
Emotionally charged pictures produced stronger amygdala response, and better memory.
Cahill, Babinsky, Markowitsch, & McGaugh (1995). Patient with damaged amygdala (B. P.) had normal memory for unemotional narratives, but did not show enhanced memory for emotional parts of a narrative.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Do FBM's Involve a Special Memory Mechanism?

17. Is There A Special Memory Mechanism for Flashbulb Memories (FBMs)?
Pro: Special Mechanism
FBMs are consequential – they have high impact on our lives.
FBMs often produce strong emotions.
Con: Special Mechanism
Narrative rehearsal hypothesis – we think repeatedly about these events. They are only special because of this rehearsal.
Just because we have vivid memories for FBMs doesn't mean that the memories are accurate.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Are FBM's Accurate?

18. Accuracy of FBM's Mixed evidence
Neisser & Harsch (1992) Subjects filled out a questionnaire within 1 day of Challenger disaster (1986), and a similar questionnaire 2.5 years later.
Subjects were asked how they learned about the disaster.
Large distortions.
Phantom flashbulbs – subjects often replaced initial memory with another, TV-based memory.
21% said that they initially learned of event from the TV. After 2.5 years, 45% said that they learned of event from the TV.
Result for phantom flashbulbs could be due to retroactive interference (subsequent TV watching becomes confused with memory for initial learning).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Time Course of Memories for 9/11 Attacks

19. Talarico: Time Course of an FBM
Talarico, J. M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14,
Studied memories for the 9/11 attack on WTC.
On 9/12/01, 54 Duke students wrote down their memories of how they first heard of the 9/11 attack. They also wrote down a recent everyday memory, e.g., going to a sporting event.
The study compared 9/11 memories to everyday memories after varying delays.
Graphs Showing Decrease in Accuracy but not Decrease in Certainty for FBM
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

20. Goldstein Fig. 8.8. Talarico & Rubin (2003)
Number of details correctly recalled for everyday & flashbulb memories as a function of days after the event.
Confidence in the accuracy of everyday & flashbulb memories as a function of days after the event.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Summary of Results Depicted in these Graphs (Redundant)

21. Talarico Fig 1a
Figure 1 from Talarico, J. M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14,
Number of correct details diminishes over time for both flashbulb and everyday memories.
Belief in the accuracy of memories diminishes over time for everyday memories but remains high for FBM's.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Similar Result for O. J. Simpson Murder Trial

22. Tuesday, 8 May, 2018: The Lecture Ended Here
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

23. Memory for the O. J. Simpson Murder Trial: 15 & 32 Months After the Trial
Schmolck, H., Buffalo, E. A., & Squire, L. R. (2000). Memory for distortions develop over time: Recollections of the O. J. Simpson trial verdict after 15 and 32 months. Psychological Science, 11,
Subjects were interviewed 3 days after the verdict in the O. J. Simpson murder trial. Answered questions about their thoughts on the trial, e.g., how did you learn of the verdict? how do you feel about the verdict?
Subjects were randomly assigned to a 2nd interview 15 or 32 months after the 1st interview.
Subjects were asked to recall what they thought at the 1st interview.
Over time, there are fewer "don't remember" responses, and more very inaccurate memories (Schmolck et al., 2000).
June of 1994: Nicole Brown Simpson & Ronald Goldman were stabbed to death.
January of 1995: Trial of O. J. Simpson begins. October of 1995: Simpson is found not guilty of 2 counts of murder.
Similar results for death of Princess Diana in August English people interviewed in out of 45 (44%) reported watching a video of her car crash even though no such video was ever made public.
"Don't Remember” Very Inaccurate Responses Responses
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Why Confidence Remains High While Accuracy Diminishes Over Time

24. Why do people have high confidence in the accuracy of FBM's even though the accuracy declines?
People keep thinking about flashbulb memories.
Increases strength of memory.
Supports the narrative rehearsal hypothesis.
People add information that helps them make sense out of the memory, but the added information may not be accurate.
The added information makes the memory more meaningful.
Memory is constructive or reconstructive.
Source misattribution.
I.e., people learn something after an event but they come to believe that they learned it while experiencing the event.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Return to Question: Is there a Special Mechanism for FBM's?

25. Do Flashbulb Memories (FBM’s) Involve Special Cognitive Mechanisms?
Bottom line: No convincing evidence that FBM's involve special mechanisms, although there are ways in which they tend to be unusual.
Encoding is often associated with stronger emotion, more vivid detail, events are more personally important.
It is likely that FBM’s are retrieved multiple times. These retrievals lead to strengthened associations with other facts and ideas. Consolidation and reconstruction of memory over time.
Over time, people have higher confidence in the accuracy of FBM's than everyday memories from the same time period. FBM's appear more vivid and more clear at time of retrieval.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
A Schema for "Office Rooms"