1. Nigeria
Modified from Mr. Caroddo’s Education Website at

3. Public Authority & Political Power
“National Question”differing opinions about how political power should be distributed and how the government should be constructed.
In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run deeper than other countries
Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders nor its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how
Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one state
Regional disagreements & hostilities
Problems traditionally solved by military force and authoritarianism

5. Legitimacy
Nigeria is a relatively young country, achieving independence in 1960, this makes establishing legitimate government more difficult
Fragmentation – tendency to fall apart along ethnic, regional, and/or religious lines.
Contradictory Influence of the Past – British colonial “rule of law” vs. Military rule/Personalized authority
Corruption – both military and civilian rule tainted with corruption. Citizens question the payment of taxes that get deposited in personal bank accounts
General Ibrahim Babangida ( )
General Sani Abacha ( )

6. Babangida

7. Precolonial Era (800-1600) “Political Traditions”
Trade Connections – Sahara Desert; Niger River & Ocean Access
Influence of Islam – Trade with North Africa put Hausa & other groups in contact with Arab education and Islam, sharia emerges as dominant political principle
Kinship-based Politics – village key political entity
Complex Political Identities – contrast between centralized state and local governance.
Democratic Impulses – accountability, representative government, and democracy practiced by many villages, including Yoruba and Igbo.

8. Legacy of Slavery

9. Colonial Era (1860-1960) “Political Traditions”
Authoritarian Rule – in order to achieve goals of economic domination British strengthened the authority of traditional chiefs, making them accountable only to British. This resulted in a loosening of rulers’ responsibility to the people
Interventionist State – the British trained chiefs to operate government to achieve economic goals. This set in place expectations that citizens should passively accept actions of rulers.
Individualism – a tendency of chiefs to think about personal benefits of governance, rather than good of the community

10. British Colonialism

11. Colonial Era
Christianity – British introduction of Christianity created a split between Christian and Muslim dominated areas. Islam dominant in the north, Christianity in the southeast and southwest.
Intensification of Ethnic Politics – emergence of three dominant groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba. British pitted groups against each other by promising rewards to some groups but not others.

12. Independence Era (1960-Present) “Political Traditions”
Parliamentary vs. Presidential System – Nigeria operated under parliamentary system from Ethnic divisions made parliamentary system difficult, switched to presidential system with separate legislature and independent judiciary, but neither has been able to check power of the president
Intensification of Ethnic Conflict – After independence Hausa-Fulani dominated parliament because of large population. They formed a coalition with Igbo of the southeast to ensure their dominance, this created added tension and conflict with Yoruba of the west. In 1966 a group of Igbo military officers seized power.

13. Independence

14. Independence Era
Military Rule – first military ruler, Agiyi Ironsi, justified his authority by announcing his intention to end violence and political corruption. He was assassinated, sparking the Igbo secession that led to the Biafran War ( )
Personalized Rule/Corruption
Federalism – in attempt to mollify ethnic tension and remain one country, Nigerian leaders set up federalist system, with powers being delegated to state and local governments. Under military executives however it did not work. Military presidents did not allow states to have legitimate sovereignty.
Economic dependence on Oil

15. Oil Dependence

16. Political Culture Patron-Clientelism (PREBENDELISM)
Clientelism – exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients, corruption becomes problematic
State Control/Underdeveloped Society
Civil society refers to voluntary associations that lie outside government control.
Modernity vs. Tradition
Pre-Colonial Era vs. Colonial Era
Religious Conflict

17. Geographic Influences
Northwest – dominated by two groups that combined as the Hausa-Fulani people, area is predominantly Muslim.
Northeast – area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kunari, also predominantly Muslim.
Middle Belt – many smaller ethnic groups, mix of Muslims and Christians.
Southwest – Yoruba dominate the area. They are about 40% Muslim, 40% Christian, and 20% native religions.
Southeast – area dominated by the Igbo, predominantly Roman Catholic with some Protestant Christians as well
Southern Zone – area along Niger River Delta, people are from various small minority groups.

18. Ethnic Groups

19. Societal Characteristics & Concerns
Poverty – 70% of all Nigerians live below poverty line, with many living in absolute poverty.
Gap between Rich & Poor – similar to Mexico, however in Nigeria now growth is being made to alleviate this gap.
Health Issues – high rates of HIV/AIDS, one in every eleven HIV/AIDS sufferers live in Nigeria.
Literacy – for males is 75.7% and for females 60.6% (World averages are 83% men, 71% for women)

20. Poverty

21. Political Cleavages
Ethnicity – Nigeria has between ethnic groups, Huasa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and speak different languages
Religion – Islam, Christianity, and native religions.
Region – follow along ethnic and religious lines
Urban vs. Rural Differences – most political organizing, interest groups, and political protest takes place in cities
Social Class – deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites stems from access to Nigeria’s resources. Maintained their power by appealing to religious and ethnic identities. Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up wealth associated with access to state treasury, educated elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles.

22. Wealth Gap

23. Prebendalism Personalized system of rule
Personal offices treated like “fiefdoms”
Large patronage networks based on personal loyalty
Local government officials gain support of villagers by dispensing favors, in turn they receive favors for supporting their patron bosses
Most favors exchanged by political elites
Corruption and informal influence rampant
Does however represent established form of political participation

25. Attitudes toward Government
Citizens do not Trust Nigerian Government
Corruption
Military Rule
Weakness of Civil Society
Nigerians support democracy but are skeptical

26. Protests & Social Movements
Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa)
Targeted the international oil companies, especially in the Niger River Delta
In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied ChevronTexaco’s Nigerian headquarters for 10 days
Ethnic groups
Women’s Movement
President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003 campaign to include more women in cabinet and bureaucratic offices
Nigerian legislature has very low female representation

27. Protests

28. Political Parties People’s Democratic Party (PDP)
Well-established Party
Party of all four democratically elected presidents
Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine accurate level of support for the PDP
All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP)
General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the North, ran against Obesanjo
Receives about one third of the vote
His running mate and potential future candidate was Chuba Okadigbo, an Igbo from the Southeast

29. Elections & Electoral Procedures
Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and national.
National level citizens vote for the president, representatives to the National Assembly, and senators from their states.
National Elections
Presidential Elections
If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority, a second ballot election takes place.
President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the states
A purely regional candidate can not win
Requirement reflects difficulty experienced in attempt to unify Nigeria

31. Elections Continued Legislative Elections
Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36 states, and one from federal capital territory of Abuja
Elected by direct popular vote
360 representatives of National Assembly (formerly the House of Representatives)
Elected from single member districts by plurality vote
Regional representation dominates in both houses.
Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislature
Legislative authority is weak in Nigeria

32. Election Fraud Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)
Currently 4 consecutive elections have been held without annulment or delay
Public protest and several deaths have accompanied the last few elections, but none were as bad as many predicted they would be
Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)
Attempted to cleanse electoral process
International teams concluded elections were corrupt
Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with fraudulent votes
Voting patterns in the south in particular were suspicious

34. Interest Groups
A large number of civil society organizations often cooperate with political parties
Religious interest groups important in Nigeria
Christian Association of Nigeria protested when General Babangida changed Nigeria’s status in the Organization of Islamic Conference from observer to member
Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to support the sharia court system
Citizens have worked around military authoritarianism to have an impact on political life through labor unions, student groups, and populist groups.

35. Interest Groups Labor Unions
In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly protested the government’ss attempt to raise oil prices for Nigerian consumers
Business Interests
Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms have operated outside the realm of government and helped promote economic reforms of the 1990s
Human Rights Groups
Promote democratic reforms
Include university students, teachers, civil liberties organizations, and professional groups (doctors, lawyers)

36. Mass Media Nigeria has well-developed, independent press
Press reflects ethnic divisions in the country
Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the south
Radio is the main source of information for most Nigerians
All 36 states have their own radio stations

38. Institutions of National Government
Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)
Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive, Judicial)
Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an executive, legislative, and judicial branch
Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate, and state & local governments are completely dependent on the central government

39. The Executive The president has very strong powers
Propose a program of policies
Appoint cabinet officials
Commander-in-chief
Signs bills
Meets with foreign officials

40. Goodluck Jonathan

41. Bureaucracy
British installed elaborate civil service system during colonial period
Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within bureaucracy
Civil service sector continued to grow after independence
Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient. Bribery is common.
Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patron-client system, Prebendalism.

43. Bureaucracy-Parastatals
Corporatism – authoritarian political system that allows for political input from selected interest groups outside the government structure
In Nigeria, this input is provided by parastatals, because they are controlled by the government it is referred to as State Corporatism
Parastatals insure that the state controls private interest as well as fulfills social & economic functions
Parastatals serve as contact point between government & business interests, but state ultimately controls these interactions (Corrupt & inept)

44. Bureaucracy-Parastatals
Most government agencies are parastatals, or corporations owned by the state. (Similar to Mexico)
Provide commercial and social welfare services
Board members are appointed by government ministers, and corporate executives are part of the president’s patronage system
Parastatals provide public utilities such as water, electricity, public transportation, and agricultural subsidies
Control major industries such as steel, defense industry, and petroleum

45. Legislature
Corruption scandals – in 1999 president of the Senate and speaker of the lower house were removed for perjury and forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed for accepting kickbacks for a government contract

47. Legislature Senate National Assembly 109 Senators
3 from each of the 36 states
1 from Abuja district
Directly elected by popular vote
Senators are ethnically and religiously diverse
National Assembly
Formerly called House of Representatives
360 member representatives
Single-member districts, elected by plurality vote

48. Judiciary Presidential cronies appointed as justices
Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in accordance with the Constitution, so judicial review exist in theory
Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the Supreme Court
Shari’a courts exist along with courts developed on British model
Cases:
In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was detained and died in custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the military cronyism of the judicial system
In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided over by military officers

50. Military Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria
“Military in Government” – those that initiate coups and take over the responsibility of the executive branch
“Military in Barracks” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its leaders have been critical of military control of political power.
Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in character.
Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife and conflict

51. Economic Issues
Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering of Nigeria’s wealth
Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population lives in poverty
Nigeria is a rentier state, in which a significant portion of government revenue is generated through rent
Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government officials

53. Oil Dependence
Oil wealth during the 1970s gave Nigeria international leverage
OPEC member
Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria more important as a trade partner for other countries since 1970s
Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria when oil prices drop
DEBT – as a result of drop in oil prices and lack of revenue surplus

54. Oil

55. Structural Adjustment
1980s, Nigeria sought assistance from international organizations to deal with debt crisis
World Bank & IMF involvement
Restructure & diversification of Nigerian economy
Privatize parastatals
Cut government spending
“Shock Treatment” not very successful
Parastatals still under government control
Debt repayment had to be restructured

57. Reforms Economic Reforms of the late 1990s
Further privatization of state-owned industry
Limitations on economic controls of the central government
Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign banks and placed in the state treasury
Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria
Increase in public wages
Hope of decreasing instances of corruption
Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized oil prices