1. Federal Republic of Nigeria Nigeria

2. I. Public Authority & Political Power
“National Question”: differing opinions about how political power should be distributed and how the government should be constructed.
In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run deeper than other countries
Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders nor its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how
Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one nation
Regional disagreements & hostilities
Problems traditionally solved by military force and authoritarianism

3. II. Constitutionalism First constitution written in 1914
Eight constitutions between 1914 and 1995
Current constitution written in 1995 has been heavily amended since its inception
Acceptance of “constitutionalism” as a guiding set of principles has eluded Nigeria
Military and civilian leaders have felt free to disobey and suspend constitutional principles or change constitutions not to their liking
Without constitutionalism the “National Question” has been much harder to answer

4. III. Legitimacy
Nigeria is a relatively young country, achieving independence in 1960, this makes establishing legitimate government more difficult
Fragmentation – tendency to fall apart along ethnic, regional, and/or religious lines.
Contradictory Influence of the Past – British colonial “rule of law” vs. Military rule/Personalized authority
Corruption – both military and civilian rule tainted with corruption. Citizens question the payment of taxes that get deposited in personal bank accounts
General Ibrahim Babangida ( )
General Sani Abacha ( )

5. IV. Precolonial Era (800-1600) “Political Traditions”
Trade Connections – Sahara Desert “Golden Trade of the Moors”; Niger River & Ocean Access
Influence of Islam – Trade with North Africa put Hausa & other groups in contact with Arab education and Islam, sharia emerges as dominant political principle
Kinship-based Politics – village key political entity
Complex Political Identities – contrast between centralized state and local governance. (Oyo & Ife centralized states in south vs. small trading-states in north)
Democratic Impulses – accountability, representative government, and democracy practiced by many villages, including Yoruba and Igbo.

6. V. Colonial Era (1860-1960) “Political Traditions”
Authoritarian Rule – in order to achieve goals of economic domination British strengthened the authority of traditional chiefs, making them accountable only to British. This resulted in a loosening of rulers’ responsibility to the people
Interventionist State – colonialist trained chiefs to operate government to achieve economic goals. Checks on authority that existed in Britain did not have roots in Nigeria. This set in place expectations that citizens should passively accept actions of rulers.
Individualism – in Nigeria led to a tendency of chiefs to think about personal benefits of governance, rather than good of the community

7. V. Colonial Era continued
Christianity – British introduction of Christianity created a split between Christian and Muslim dominated areas. Islam dominant in the north, Christianity in the south.
Intensification of Ethnic Politics – emergence of three dominant groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba.
British pitted groups against each other by promising rewards to some groups but not others.
Anti-colonialism movement emerged during 20th century appealed to ethnic identities to gain followers and supporters of decolonization

8. VI. Independence Era (1960-Present) “Political Traditions”
Parliamentary vs. Presidential System – Nigeria operated under parliamentary system from Ethnic divisions made parliamentary system difficult, switched to presidential system with separate legislature and independent judiciary, but neither has been able to check power of the president
Intensification of Ethnic Conflict – After independence Hausa-Fulani dominated parliament because of large population. They formed a coalition with Igbo of the southeast to ensure their dominance, this created added tension and conflict with Yoruba of the west. In 1966 a group of Igbo military officers seized power.

9. VI. Independence Era continued
Military Rule – first military ruler, Agiyi Ironsi, justified his authority by announcing his intention to end violence and political corruption. He was assassinated, sparking the Igbo secession that led to the Biafran War ( )
Personalized Rule/Corruption
Federalism – in attempt to mollify ethnic tension and remain one country, Nigerian leaders set up federalist system, with powers being delegated to state and local governments. Under military executives however it did not work. Military presidents did not allow states to have legitimate sovereignty.
Economic dependence on Oil

10. VII. Political Culture Patron-Clientelism (PREBENDELISM)
Clientelism – exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients, corruption becomes problematic
EX: In Nigeria, in exchange for support a president may grant his clients a portion of the oil revenues.
State Control/Underdeveloped Society
Civil society refers to sectors of country that lie outside government control.
In Nigeria state controls all aspects of life (economics, political participation, religious activity, etc.) this reinforces clientelism and limits democracy
Modernity vs. Tradition
Pre-Colonial Era vs. Colonial Era
Religious Conflict
Geographic Influence

11. Geographic Influences
Northwest – dominated by two groups that combined as the Hausa-Fulani people, area is predominantly Muslim.
Northeast – area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kunari, also predominantly Muslim.
Middle Belt – many smaller ethnic groups, mix of Muslims and Christians.
Southwest – Yoruba dominate the area. They are about 40% Muslim, 40% Christian, and 20% native religions.
Southeast – area dominated by the Igbo, predominantly Roman Catholic with some Protestant Christians as well
Southern Zone – area along Niger River Delta, people are from various small minority groups.

12. VIII. Societal Characteristics & Concerns
Poverty – 60% of all Nigerians live below poverty line, with many living in absolute poverty.
Gap between Rich & Poor – similar to Mexico, however in Nigeria now growth is being made to alleviate this gap.
Health Issues – high rates of HIV/AIDS, one in every eleven HIV/AIDS sufferers live in Nigeria.
Literacy – for males is 75.7% and for females 60.6% (World averages are 83% men, 71% for women)

13. IX. Political Cleavages
Ethnicity – Nigeria has between ethnic groups, Huasa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and speak different languages
Religion – Islam, Christianity, and native religions.
Region – follow along ethnic and religious lines
Urban vs. Rural Differences – most political organizing, interest groups, and political protest takes place in cities
Social Class – deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites stems from access to Nigeria’s resources. Maintained their power by appealing to religious and ethnic identities. Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up wealth associated with access to state treasury, educated elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles.

14. X. Political Participation
Patron-Clientelism
Voting Behavior
Attitudes toward Government
Protests and Social Movements

15. Prebendalism Personalized system of rule
Personal offices treated like “fiefdoms”
Large patronage networks based on personal loyalty
Local government officials gain support of villagers by dispensing favors, in turn they receive favors for supporting their patron bosses
Most favors exchanged by political elites
Corruption and informal influence rampant
Does however represent established form of political participation

16. Voting Behavior Nigerians have voted in elections since 1959
Voting patterns difficult to determine because of fraud, postponement, and election cancellation
Political parties are numerous and fluid
Babangida’s annulment of 1993 election hurt political participation during the 1990s
Local, state, & national elections have continued however since the late 1990s
About 2/3 of eligible voters participated in the 2003 election

17. Attitudes toward Government
Citizens do not Trust Nigerian Government
Corruption
Military Rule
Lack of Civil Society
No commitment toward Democracy
Babangida & Abacha (Corrupt - Military Authoritarianism)

18. Protests & Social Movements
Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa)
Targeted the international oil companies, especially in the Niger River Delta
In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied ChevronTexaco’s Nigerian headquarters for 10 days
Ethnic groups
Women’s Movement
President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003 campaign to include more women in cabinet and bureaucratic offices
Nigerian legislature has very low female representation
6.4% in House of Representatives
3.7% in Senate

19. XI. Political Institutions
Multiple regime throughout its history
North & West – well-developed large states and hereditary monarchies
Hausa in west organized into powerful trading city-states
South – small, communal kinship-based rule
British colonialism led to indirect rule, with chiefs leading on behalf of British government. (Authoritarian rule under British direction)
Post-independence = Military Authoritarianism
Government structure formally federalist & democratic, but does not generally operate as such
British controlled economy led to current state controlled economy
Nigeria has currently turned to supranationals (IMF & World Bank) to save economy

20. XII. Political Parties
Factionalism led to creation of many political parties
Failure to create coherent party system
Parties formed and faded around personalities
Multi-party system reinforced and strengthened ethnic and religious cleavages
Independent National Election Committee (INEC) – registered a number of parties following the death of Abacha in 1998
In order to run candidates for the legislative and presidential elections of 1999, a party had to qualify by receiving at least 5% of the votes in two-thirds of the states in the 1998 election
This cut the number of parties significantly, only 5 parties were eligible to run candidates in the 2003 election

21. Political Parties II People’s Democratic Party (PDP)
Well-established Party
Began running candidates in 1998
Party of President Olesugun Obesanjo (Igbo, Christian from the North)
Obesanjo received 62% of vote in 2003 election
PDP gained majority in National Assembly and most of the governors throughout the country
Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine accurate level of support for the PDP
All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP)
General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the North, ran against Obesanjo
Received about 32% of the vote
His running mate and potential future candidate was Chuba Okadigbo, an Igbo from the Southeast
Other parties that ran presidential candidates include All Progressive Grand Alliance (APGA), The Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ), and the Justice Party
Alliance for Democracy (AD) did not have a presidential candidate in 2003, but did receive 9% of the votes for the legislative elections

22. XIII. Elections & Electoral Procedures
Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and national.
National level citizens vote for the president, representatives to the National Assembly, and senators from their states.
National Elections
Presidential Elections
After annulled election of 1993, first election took place in 1999, with another in 2003.
If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority, a second ballot election takes place.
President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the states
A purely regional candidate can not win
Requirement reflects difficulty experienced in attempt to unify Nigeria

23. Elections Continued Legislative Elections
Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36 states, and one from federal capital territory of Abuja
Elected by direct popular vote
360 representatives of National Assembly (formerly the House of Representatives)
Elected from single member districts by plurality vote
Regional representation dominates in both houses.
Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislature
Legislative authority is weak in Nigeria

24. Election Fraud
Currently 3 consecutive elections have been held without annulment or delay
Public protest and several deaths have accompanied the last few elections, but none were as bad as many predicted they would be
Several politicians were assassinated, including Marshall Harry, a leader of the ANPP
Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)
Attempted to cleanse electoral process, declared six million names to be fraudulent during 2003 elections
International teams concluded elections were corrupt
Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with fraudulent votes
Voting patterns in the south in particular were suspicious

25. XIV. Interest Groups
Have actually played an important role in Nigerian politics
A large number of civil society organizations often cooperate with political parties
Religious interest groups important in Nigeria
Christian Association of Nigeria protested when General Babangida changed Nigeria’s status in the Organization of Islamic Conference from observer to member
Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to support the shari’a court system
Citizens have worked around military authoritarianism to have an impact on political life through labor unions, student groups, and populist groups.

26. Interest Groups II Labor Unions Business Interests Human Rights Groups
Independent and politically influential prior to 1980s
Through the introduction of corporatism the Babangida regime limited the influence of labor unions
A central labor organization supplanted the older unions, and only candidates approved by Babangida could be chosen as labor leaders
In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly protested the government’s attempt to raise oil prices for Nigerian consumers
Business Interests
Business interests have tended to work in collaboration with the military regimes, in return for the spoils related to the corruption of the elite class
Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms have operated outside the realm of government and helped promote economic reforms of the 1990s
Human Rights Groups
Promote democratic reforms
Include university students, teachers, civil liberties organizations, and professional groups (doctors, lawyers)
These groups protested against the abuses of Babangida and Abacha

27. XV. Mass Media Nigeria has well-developed, independent press
General Abacha attempted to curb criticism of his regime by closing several newspapers and magazines in Nigeria in 1994
Press reflects ethnic divisions in the country
Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the south
Radio is the main source of information for most Nigerians
All 36 states have their own radio stations

28. XVI. Institutions of National Government
Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)
Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive, Judicial)
Executive has been most dominant traditionally
Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an executive, legislative, and judicial branch
2nd, 3rd, & 4th Republics (all since 1979) had presidential system, with a strong executive theoretically checked by bicameral legislature and independent judiciary
Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate, and state & local governments are completely dependent on the central government

29. Executive Branch
1979, 2nd Republic, presidential system replaced parliamentary system based on British model
Multiple ethnic groups fragmented the multi-party system and the legislature and prevented a prime minister from gaining the necessary authority to rule
Belief was that a president could symbolize national unity and rise above weak party system
U.S. presidential model with two-term limits
1983, Major-General Muhammadu Buhari initiated palace coup, set precedent for military coups and military rule
Buhari ousted by Gen. Babangida in 1985
Gen. Abacha replaces Babangida in 1993
Civilian rule returned in 1999, President Obasanjo

30. Executive II Military Rule Patrimonialism
7 military rulers have all ruled differently
All promised transition to democracy
Only Obasanjo in 1979 and General Abubakar in 1999 delivered democratic transition
Generals Buhari ( ), Babangida ( ), and Abacha ( ) used repression and violence
All military & civilian regimes concentrated power in hands of the executive
Patrimonialism
Generals/Presidents head of patron-client system
Dispense government jobs and resources as rewards to political supporters
Cabinet positions & bureaucratic chiefs part of president’s patronage system
Patrimonialism in Nigeria is unstable which has led to recurring coups

31. XVII. Bureaucracy
British installed elaborate civil service system during colonial period
Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within bureaucracy
Civil service sector continued to grow after independence
Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient. Bribery is common.
Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patron-client system, Prebendalism.

32. Bureaucracy II Parastatals State Corporatism
Most government agencies are parastatals, or corporations owned by the state. (Similar to Mexico)
Provide commercial and social welfare services
Board members are appointed by government ministers, and corporate executives are part of the president’s patronage system
Parastatals provide public utilities such as water, electricity, public transportation, and agricultural subsidies
Control major industries such as steel, defense industry, and petroleum
State Corporatism
Corporatism – authoritarian political system that allows for political input from selected interest groups outside the government structure
In Nigeria, this input is provided by parastatals, because they are controlled by the government it is referred to as State Corporatism
Parastatals insure that the state controls private interest as well as fulfills social & economic functions
Parastatals serve as contact point between government & business interests, but state ultimately controls these interactions (Corrupt & inept)

33. XVIII. Legislature A parliamentary system until 1979
Replaced by a bicameral legislature
Nigerian legislature under military governments have had no power, under civilian government they have been unable to check power of the president
Corruption scandals – in 1999 president of the Senate and speaker of the lower house were removed for perjury and forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed for accepting kickbacks for a government contract

34. Legislature II National Assembly Senate
109 Senators
3 from each of the 36 states
1 from Abuja district
Directly elected by popular vote
Senators are ethnically and religiously diverse
Only 4 of 109 Senators were women as of 2003 elections
National Assembly
Formerly called House of Representatives
360 member representatives
Single-member districts, elected by plurality vote
Only 23 of the 360 representatives are women (2003)

35. XIX. Judiciary
Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of autonomy
Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court decisions and setup quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular system
Judicial review was suspended
Presidential cronies appointed as justices
Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in accordance with the Constitution, so judicial review exist in theory
Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the Supreme Court
Shari’a courts exist in parallel existence with courts developed on British model
Cases:
In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was detained and died in custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the military cronyism of the judicial system
In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided over by military officers

36. XX. Military Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria
“Military in Government” – those that initiate coups and take over the responsibility of the executive branch
“Military in Barracks” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its leaders have been critical of military control of political power.
Military has been subject to internal discord, military presidents often have to keep a close eye on other military leaders.
Babangida protected his authority by constantly moving military personnel around and appointed senior officers through his patronage system
Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in character.
Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife and conflict

37. XXI. Public Policy Top-down policy-making process.
Power concentrated in hands of the president & cabinet ministers through channels established by patron clientelism
Loyalty Pyramid – senior officials supported by broader base of loyal junior officials
State control of resources means that those in the pyramid get the spoils, they alone have access to wealth and influence. Loyal clients of patronage structured pyramids includes:
“Kaduna Mafia”, “Babangida’s Boys”, and “Abacha’s Boys”
Military controls pyramids, pyramids supported by “guns” (Force); therefore, protesting system can be dangerous
Top-down, self-interested rule established by British during colonial era when the British relied on native chiefs to ensure Nigerian trade and resources benefited Great Britain

38. XXII. Economic Issues
Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering of Nigeria’s wealth
Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population lives in poverty
Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government officials
Economic situation complicated by ethnic & regional conflict
In February 2001, federal government asked the Supreme Court to all the government to collect oil revenue and put it in a “federal account” (Revenue Sharing)
Areas in the south along Niger River Delta protested this idea, they believed the policy was a way for northerners to take profits and revenue away from the south

39. Economic Issues II Oil Structural Adjustment
Oil wealth during the 1970s gave Nigeria international leverage
OPEC member
Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria more important as a trade partner for other countries since 1970s
Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria when oil prices drop
DEBT – as a result of drop in oil prices and lack of revenue surplus
Structural Adjustment
1980s, Nigeria seeks assistance from international organizations to deal with debt crisis
World Bank & IMF involvement
Restructure & diversification of Nigerian economy
Privatize parastatals
Cut government spending
“Shock Treatment” not very successful
Parastatals still under government control
Debt repayment had to be restructured

40. XXIII. “Federal Character”
Federalism seen as a positive characteristic for Nigerian political structure
Federalism promises power-sharing
Allows citizens more contact points with government
“Federal Character”
Recognition of all ethnic, religious, & regional groups
Nigerian Constitutional Provisions
Senators represent diverse states
Representatives elected from diverse districts
President must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the districts
Negatives of Federalism
Federalism bloats bureaucracy
Promotes corruption within bureaucracy
Jobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic groups
Legislative branch suffers from gridlock
Competition over government resources

41. Federalism II
Southerners argue that federalism will only exist when central government devolves some authority to the state & local governments
Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should control their own resources
Redistribution of the region’s oil wealth should be prohibited
Southerners suggest that police duties should also be the responsibility of local and state governments
This “True Federalism Movement” not supported by Northerners
North has few resources and very little revenue to share
Northerners benefit more from redistribution of wealth programs

42. XXIV. Reforms Economic Reforms of the late 1990s
Further privatization of state-owned industry
Limitations on economic controls of the central government
Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign banks and placed in the state treasury
Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria
Increase in public wages
Hope of decreasing instances of corruption
Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized oil prices