1. MAO’S RED CHINA
CHINA IN 1900

2. The Manchu Dynasty Chinese Versus Western Dates
Dynasty in 1900 – Qing family (Manchu Dynasty)
China’s Last Dynasty ( )
Chinese Historical Innovation and Culture
I. When the Chinese study their own history, they do not refer to dates the same way as we do in the West. Instead, they divide their history into dynasties – periods of time when the country is ruled by one royal family. II. In 1900, China was ruled by the Qing family. As they originally came from Manchuria, north of China, their dynasty was also known as the Manchu Dynasty. III. The Qing (Manchu) Dynasty ( ) was China's last dynasty. The Manchu emperors were unpopular because they were non-Han Chinese and they descended from horsemen from the north and opened up China to exploitation from the West. IV. Even so they made many improvements in the lives of ordinary Chinese and expanded China to its present size. The Manchus were Mongol-like horsemen turned merchants from Manchuria who were centered in the city of Shenyang. They were of mixed Mongolian, Korean, Chinese and Jurchen stock. Qing (pronounced ching and also spelled Ching or Ch'ing) means “pure.” The empire which the Manchus ruled had been in existence for over 2000 years. During that time the Chinese people had become one of the most advanced civilizations in the world. They were especially skilled in astronomy, mathematics, engineering and medicine; they were the first people to use paper and had invented printing; they were making porcelain and paper long before these skills were known in the West; silkweaving, gunpowder, spectacles, the magnetic compass and the suspension bridge were all Chinese inventions. Under their able but unpopular leadership, the Manchu emperors introduced new crops (sweet potato, maize, peanuts), developed better flood control, reduced taxes and allowed economic and political growth. Traditional arts and literature became more sophisticated. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, China accounted for a third of the world’s total value of goods and services. As late as 1820, China accounted for 29 percent of the world's gross domestic product.

3. The Manchus expanded Chinese control to it greatest extent in Central and Southeast Asia and also brought Tibet and Mongolia under Chinese control. Conquests in the 18th century in western and southern China nearly doubled China's size. Manchu expansion into the West started in 1760, dramatically increasing the population of the empire and providing a "buffer for the heartland." In less than 70 years (between 1762 and 1830) the population of China nearly doubled, from 200 million people to 395 million people. The empire was expanded to the west and south by granting trade concessions to Islamic rulers in Central Asia and monarchs in Southeast Asia.
The non-Han Manchu emperors were vulnerable to criticism from their Han subjects. They struck back by brutally repressing the Chinese peasantry by enslaving them in debt and severely punishing them for small offenses.

4. European Influence Weakness of Chinese Empire
European Incursion - The Opium Wars & 1858
Japanese Incursion
Unequal Treaties
I. By 1900, however, the Chinese empire had grown weak. The main reason for this was that European countries had gained great influence in its affairs, by using force against China. Between 1839 and 1842 the British fought an Opium War against China to force the Chinese to continue buying opium from British-ruled India. II. China had showed little interest in British trade goods such as waistcoats and fleece stockings and Britain paid for its imports of tea, silk and porcelain mainly with silver. The opium trade, however, changed all this, with the explosive growth of the opium habit (then new in China) in China, and a consequent net outflow of silver from China. Alarmed at this outflow, the Qing government banned the import and smoking of opium. When diplomatic moves failed to prevent the illegal trade of opium, in 1839 the areas of Canton where British and American merchants were permitted to operate were blockaded, and some 20,000 chests of opium seized and publicly destroyed on the Canton beaches. Britain declared war, and the first Opium War ended in a decisive defeat for China- whose bows and arrows and crude fire arms were no match for the superior European weaponry- and the humiliating Treaty of Nanjing. Here, five ports- Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai- were opened to foreign trade, Hong Kong island was ceded to the British, as well as the status of ‘extraterritoriality’ to her merchants- that is they were not subject to Chinese laws- and huge reparations were imposed for the destroyed opium. The USA and France extracted similar concessions two years later. The remaining decades of the nineteenth century saw increased incursion into China by the European and American powers- who sought to partition China among themselves. In 1856, a relatively minor naval incident led to a renewal of war with Great Britain (who was later joined by France): the Lorcha or ‘Second Opium’ war’. In this war, an Anglo-French army attacked Beijing and burned down government buildings. III. IN , the Japanese struck China, taking away Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and Port Arthur. IV. After each of these wars, the invaders forced the Manchus to sign unequal treaties, giving them control of China’s sea ports and allowing them special trade priviliges. For instance, the ‘Treaty of Tientsin’ that ended the 2nd opium war, legalized the opium trade, allowed freedom for Christian missionary activity, increased ports and trading privileges to Western merchants and imposed further war reparations. Importantly, foreign powers were also allowed to transport Chinese labor to work in their own lands and colonies by this treaty, notably in the mines and plantations of Malaya and building the transcontinental railway in the USA. By the end of the 19th century, fifty of China’s ports were treaty ports, open to foreign trade and residence. In addition, the European powers had divided China into spheres of influence. This meant that in the British sphere, British people had the biggest share of business, missionary work and transport.

5. Foreign Spheres of Influence
Not surprisingly, Europeans were very unpopular in China. Many Chinese blamed the Manchu dynasty for allowing China to be over-run by Europeans, and plotted to overthrow them. Disgusted with the failed efforts of the Manchu Dynasty in ridding China of opium or foreign influence after the Opium Wars, Chinese citizens staged the Taiping Rebellion between Already weakened, the Chinese officials turned to foreigners for help in putting down the rebellion, killing millions of Chinese in the process. Eventually the United States demanded equal trading status within China, and rather than carve out its own sphere of influence, simply announced the Open Door Policy in This stated that all nations should have equal trading rights regardless of spheres of influence. While this may have prevented the further expansion of spheres of influences, it did little to restore Chinese sovereignty.

6. Taiping Rebellion Manchu Dynasty Forced to Appeal for Foreign Help
Rebellion Lasts 14 Years
In 1850, for example, the Taiping Rebellion against the Manchus broke out. It lasted 14 years and was the worst in China’s long history. Between 1850 and 1864, vast areas of fertile land were laid waste, 600 cities ruined, and 20 million people killed. The Manchus were only able to put down the rebellion with European help, making them even more unpopular.

7. REFORMS Attempt to Modernize China – Hundred Days of Reform
Disapproval from Empress Dowager Cixi
Imprisoning of Emperor Guangxu
I. In 1898, Emperor Guangxu tried to strengthen China by modernizing the way the empire was run. In a 3 month period known as the Hundred Days of Reform, Guangxu introduced new schools and colleges and a new examination system. He improved the government’s budget and dismissed corrupt officials from the court. II. However, Guangxu’s aunt, Dowager Cixi, opposed these changes. Helped by conservative court officials, Cixi had the emperor imprisoned and forced him to grant her the power to rule China in his place.

8. The Boxer Rebellion, 1900 Opposition to Manchus and Foreigners Grows
Yi-Ho Tuan (Righteous & Harmonious Militia – the Boxers
Boxer Rebellion climax in 1900
I. At the time of the Hundred Days of Reform, opposition to the Manchus was common throughout China. Many of the opponents of the Manchus also hated foreigners, particularly Christians. Their discontent reached a peak when two successive harvests failed and the Yellow River flooded huge areas of farm land, causing famine. In addition, Chinese nationalists were insulted by the Open Door Policy. As a result a nationalist rebellion was launched in II. The rebellion was organized by a movement called Yi-Ho Tuan, meaning Righteous and Harmonious Militia. Because its members practised the martial arts, including boxing, they became known as Boxers. The Boxers blamed foriegners and Christians – calling them foreign devils – for the problems of China. They especially hated Chinese converts to Christianity. At first, the Boxers also opposed the Manchus, but Empress Dowager Cixi cleverly won them over to her side by giving them official support and by encouraging them to attack foreigners. III. The Boxer Rebellion reached a climax in When Boxers killed Europeans and Christians whom they had captured, European governments sent an armed force to Beijing to protect their nationals. This European force was defeated by a Chinese army cooperating with the Boxers.

9. The Boxer Rebellion, 1900 Boxer Uprising in Beijing
Persecution of Foreigners
Europe’s Harsh Retaliation
Further Chinese Resentment
I. At the same time, a Boxer rising began in Beijing. Boxers attacked and burnt the French cathedral, killing hundreds of Chinese Christians in the flames. In the Legation area, where foreign embassy officials ad their families lived, the Boxers trapped nearly 1000 foreigners and kept them under siege for 2 months. The European governments responded harshly to the siege of the Legation area. A six-nation force invaded China, captured and looted Beijing, and forced the Manchus to pay a fine of 67 million pounds. Many captured Boxers were executed in the streets. IV. The crushing of the Boxers did not solve anybody’s problems. The harsh methods used by the Europeans to suppress the Boxers made many Chinese hate them even more. At the same time, the invasion and looting of Beijing once again showed how weak the Manchus were.

10. After the Boxer Rebellion
Necessity for Reforms
New Measures too Late for the Manchus
I. Empress Dowager Cixi now realized that changes were necessary after all. In 1905, she began to modernize the education system. She created a new army modeled on European armies. She promised the formation of a parliament and democratic elections. II. But the measures were too little too late to save the Manchu Dynasty. The anti-Manchu, anti-foreigner movement had spread to so may people that it was only a matter of time before the Manchus would be overthrown.

11. Sun Yatsen’s Attempts to Overthrow the Manchu Dynasty
Leader of Manchu Enemies
World Experience Creates Realization of China’s Backwardness
Secret Societies and Attempts to Manchus
Sun Yatsen’s 3 Aims
I. Many of the enemies of the Manchus in 1900 had a 34-year old doctor named Sun Yatsen as their leader. Doctor Sun was Christian. II. He had been educated in American schools in Hawaii and in a British college in Hong Kong. He spent many years traveling the world and what he saw in advanced industrial countries like Britain and Japan made him realize that China was backwards and weak. Sun Yatsen came to believe that the only hope for China lay in making a republic organized on modern, Western lines. That would mean getting rid of the Manchu dynasty so opposed to change. III. Sun Yatsen founded several secret societies with the aim of overthrowing the Manchus by force. From 1894 to 1905 he led a Revive China Society and in 1905 founded the Tongmenghui, meaning Sworn Chinese Brotherhood. IV. Doctor Sun’s three aims, which he announced in 1898, were: 1) to eliminate the Manchus, 2) eliminate the monarchy and 3) open the road to socialism. All his attempts at revolution failed to overthrow the government. By 1911, he had attempted to overthrow the government on ten separate occasions.

12. The Last Years of the Manchus
Death of Dowager Cixi
Assumption of Emperor Puyi – the Last Emperor
Growing Resistance Against the Manchus by 1911
I. In 1908, 73 year old Empress Dowager Cixi died. Her successor as ruler of China was her nephew, a two year old boy named Puyi, who was given the title of Emperor. The Manchu dynasty was clearly in trouble. II. The power to rule was given to a Regent, Prince Chun, the boy’s uncles. Prince Chun sided with conservatives in the court – the politicians and princes and courtiers who disliked change. He gave important positions to his brothers and appointed the most conservative of the Imperial Princes to the post of Prime Minister. At the same time, he dismissed many powerful and able officials, including the chief military commander in north China, Yuan Shikai. III. In 1911, China entered a period of economic difficulty and discontent. The harvest failed in all of the central areas of the country…the worst crop failure for forty years and caused great distress among the peasants. The wealthier classes were also discontended because the government had increased their taxes to pay for the New Army. They also disliked the government’s plans for building railways, using foreign loans and technical assistance. The grounds were ripe for a rebellion that would end the Manchu Dynasty.