1. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History with Sources Third Edition
Robert W. Strayer
Ways of the World: A Brief Global History with Sources Third Edition
CHAPTER 4
Culture and Religion in
Eurasia/North Africa
500 B.C.E.–500 C.E.
Copyright © 2016 by Bedford/St. Martin’s
Distributed by Bedford/St. Martin's/Macmillan Higher Education strictly for use with its products; Not for redistribution.

3. I. China and the Search for Order
A. The Legalist Answer 1. Han Fei 2. Principle: rules are the answer to disorder 3. Pessimistic view of human nature 4. Promotion of farmers and soldiers 5. Inspired the Qin Dynasty reunification of China
I. China and the Search for Order
The Legalist Answer
1. Han Fei: Han Fei was a leading Legalist philosopher.
2. Principle: rules are the answer to disorder: strict rules, clearly defined and strictly enforced, are the answer to disorder.
3. Pessimistic view of human nature: only the state can act in people’s long-term interest.
4. Promotion of farmers and soldiers, who performed the only essential functions in society.
5. Legalism inspired the Qin dynasty reunification of China.

4. I. China and the Search for Order
B. The Confucian Answer 1. Confucius, 551–479 B.C.E. 2. Principle: the moral example of superiors is the answer to disorder 3. Education 4. Official ideology of the Chinese state 5. Filial Piety
I. China and the Search for Order
B. The Confucian Answer
Confucius (551–479 b.c.e.) : Confucius (551–479 b.c.e.) was an educated, ambitious aristocrat who spent much of life looking for a political position to put his ideas into practice. Confucius’s ideas had enormous impact on China and the rest of East Asia; his teachings were collected by students as the Analects. Elaboration and commentary on his ideas by later scholars created Confucianism as a body of thought.
Principle: the moral example of superiors is the answer to disorder. Society consists of unequal relationships, so it is the duty of the superior member to be sincere and benevolent, to inspire deference and obedience from the inferior member.
Education: Humans have capacity for improvement, and education is the key. Confucianism advocated a broad liberal arts education, application of liberal arts education to government problems, and the need for ritual and ceremonies.
Official ideology of the Chinese state: After Legalism was discredited, Confucianism became the official ideology of the Chinese state.
Filial Piety: The family was a model for political life, with focus on filial piety. Confucianism defined the role of women as being humble, serving husbands. Woman writer Ban Zhao (45–116 c.e.) wrote Lessons for Women.

5. I. China and the Search for Order
B. The Confucian Answer 5. Filial Piety 6. Wen and Wu 7. Expectations for Society 8. Nonreligious in character
I. China and the Search for Order
B. The Confucian Answer
5. Filial Piety: The family was a model for political life, with focus on filial piety. Confucianism defined the role of women as being humble, serving husbands. Woman writer Ban Zhao (45–116 c.e.) wrote Lessons for Women.
6. Confucian virtues for ideal men were contained in the paired concepts of wen and wu.
a. wen = refined qualities of rationality, scholarship, and literary and artistic abilities
b. wu = physical and martial achievements
c. wen was considered superior to wu
7. Expectations for Society: Emphasized the great importance of history. Ideal good society was a past golden age. “Superior men” had outstanding moral character and intellect; not just aristocrats. Confucianism created expectations for government: emperors to keep taxes low, give justice, and provide for material needs.
8. Confucianism was nonreligious in character: emphasis was practical, focused on this world. Confucianism did not deny existence of gods and spirits, but the educated elite had little to do with them.

7. I. China and the Search for Order
C. The Daoist Answer 1. Laozi, Daodejing (The Way and Its Power) 2. Opposite of Confucianism 3. Central Concept: dao 4. Invited disengagement with public life 5. Entered popular religion
I. China and the Search for Order
C. The Daoist Answer
Laozi, Daodejing (The Way and Its Power): Associated with the legendary Laozi (sixth century b.c.e.), author of the Daodejing (The Way and Its Power).
Opposite of Confucianism: Daoism was in many ways the opposite of Confucianisn; education and striving for improvement was artificial and useless; urged withdrawal into the world of nature
Central Concept: dao: The central concept was dao: the way of nature, the underlying principle that governs all natural phenomena.
Daoism invited disengagement with public life: Daoist image of virtuous natural world that had been lost to civilization, yearned to connect with nature, simple self-sufficient living, abandonment of education and active self-improvement, family still central, complementarity and balance between sexes rather than hierarchy.
Entered popular religion: Elite Chinese often regarded Daoism as a complement to Confucianism. Daoism sought to tap the power of the dao for practical purposes (magic, the quest for immortality), provided the ideology for peasant rebellions (e.g., Yellow Turbans).

9. II. Cultural Traditions of Classical India
A. South Asian Religion: From Ritual Sacrifice to Philosophical Speculation 1. Sacred texts 2. The Vedas 3. The Upanishads 4. Hinduism legitimated India’s gender system 5. Multiple paths to fulfillment
II. Cultural Traditions of Classical India
South Asian Religion: From Ritual Sacrifice to Philosophical Speculation
Sacred texts: Widely recognized sacred texts provided some common ground within the diversity of Indian culture and religion.
The Vedas: Poems, hymns, prayers, rituals compiled by Brahmins (priests), transmitted orally. They were not written down (in Sanskrit) until around 600 b.c.e., but provide a glimpse of Indian civilization in 1500–600 b.c.e., competing chiefdoms or kingdoms, a clearly patriarchal society but less restrictive than later periods. The role of Brahmins in practicing elaborate ritual sacrifices gave them power and wealth.
The Upanishads: Mystical, philosophical works developed in response to dissatisfaction with Brahmins. Composed between 800 and 400 b.c.e., they probe inner meaning of Vedic sacrifices—introspection. The central idea: Brahman (the World Soul) as ultimate reality; atman, the individual human soul, was part of Brahman; the ultimate goal was moksha, the union of atman with Brahman; achieving union involved many lifetimes; samsara reincarnation/rebirth central to the process; karma governed samsara.
Hinduism legitimated India’s gender system: Hinduism legitimated and expressed India’s gender system. Women were increasingly forbidden to learn Vedas and participate in public rituals. The Law of Manu defined women as beholden to men in every phase of life; sexual pleasure legitimate goal for men and women as detailed in the Kamasutra. Many Hindu deities were female.
Multiple paths to fulfillment: Multiple paths to fulfillment in Hindu religious thought; Brahmin priests and especially wandering ascetics spread ideas.

11. II. Cultural Traditions of Classical India
B. The Buddhist Challenge 1. Siddhartha Gautama, ca. 566-ca. 486 B.C.E. 2. Nirvana 3. Elements of Hinduism 4. Challenged Hinduism 5. Women in Buddhism 6. Appealed to lower castes and women in India 7. The split within Buddhism:
II. Cultural Traditions of Classical India
B. The Buddhist Challenge
Developed side by side with philosophical Hinduism.
Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 566-ca. 486 B.C.E.): spiritual journey led to “enlightenment” (insight) at age 35; his followers saw him as the Buddha, the Enlightened One.
Nirvana: Life is suffering. Sorrow’s cause is craving for individual fulfillment, attachment to self. “Cure” it with modest and moral life, meditation. Goal is achievement of enlightenment or nirvana (extinguishing of individual identity).
Elements of Hinduism: Large elements of Hinduism were present, such as the ideas of life as an illusion, karma and rebirth, overcoming demands of the ego, practice of meditation, and hope for release from the cycle of rebirth.
Challenged Hinudism: Much of Buddhism challenge Hinduism, such as the rejection of Brahmins’ religious authority, lack of interest in abstract speculation, and need for individuals to take responsibility for their own spiritual development. Also challenged inequalities of caste system.
Women in Buddhism: While at first opposed, Buddha ultimately allowed separate female orders of nuns. Rules clearly subordinated nuns to men, as Buddha viewed women as an obstacle to male enlightenment. Nuns found relative freedom and independence.
Appealed to lower castes and women in India: Teaching was in local language, not classical Sanskrit. Buddhism linked to local traditions with establishment of monasteries and stupas (shrines with relics of the Buddha), and received state support from Ashoka (268–232 b.c.e.).
The split within Buddhism:
a. Early Buddhism (Theravada, the Teaching of the Elders)
b. By early in the Common Era, development of Mahayana (Great Vehicle)

13. II. Cultural Traditions of Classical India
B. The Buddhist Challenge 5. Women in Buddhism 6. Appealed to lower castes and women in India 7. The split within Buddhism:
II. Cultural Traditions of Classical India
B. The Buddhist Challenge
5. Women in Buddhism: While at first opposed, Buddha ultimately allowed separate female orders of nuns. Rules clearly subordinated nuns to men, as Buddha viewed women as an obstacle to male enlightenment. Nuns found relative freedom and independence.
6. Appealed to lower castes and women in India: Teaching was in local language, not classical Sanskrit. Buddhism linked to local traditions with establishment of monasteries and stupas (shrines with relics of the Buddha), and received state support from Ashoka (268–232 b.c.e.).
7. The split within Buddhism:
a. Early Buddhism (Theravada, the Teaching of the Elders)
b. By early in the Common Era, development of Mahayana (Great Vehicle)

15. II. Cultural Traditions of Classical India
C. Hinduism as a Religion of Duty and Devotion 1. Buddhism reincorporated into Hinduism 2. Mahayana Buddhism 3. A more popular Hinduism: the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and bhakti
II. Cultural Traditions of Classical India
C. Hinduism as a Religion of Duty and Devotion
Buddhism reincorporated into Hinduism:Buddhism was gradually reincorporated into Hinduism in India.
Mahayana Buddhism:Mahayana Buddhism in particular spread elsewhere in Asia
A more popular Hinduism: the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and bhakti: First millennium c.e.: development of a more popular Hinduism. Expressed in epic poems, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Action in the world and performance of caste duties provide a path to liberation. Bhakti (worship) movement began in south India.

16. III. Toward Monotheism: The Search for God in the Middle East
A. Zoroastrianism 1. Zarathustra 2. Achaemenid dynasty, 558–330 B.C.E. 3. Ahura Mazda 4. The Spread and Decline of Zoroastrianism 5. Influenced Judaism in the Persian Empire
III. Toward Monotheism: The Search for God in the Middle East
Zoroastrianism
Zarathustra: Persian prophet Zarathustra traditionally dated to sixth or seventh century b.c.e.
Achaemenid dynasty (558–330 b.c.e.): Some state support during Achaemenid dynasty (558–330 b.c.e.).
Ahura Mazda: Single god Ahura Mazda is source of truth, light, goodness. Cosmic struggle with Angra Mainyu (force of evil); hura Mazda will eventually win, aided by a final savior. Judgment day: restoration of world to purity and peace; need for the individual to choose good or evil.
The Spread and Decline of Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism did not spread widely beyond Persia. Alexander and the Seleucid dynasty were disastrous for it. It flourished in Parthian (247 b.c.e.–224 c.e.) and Sassanid (224–651 c.e.) empires. Final decline caused by arrival of Islam; some Zoroastrians fled to India, became known as Parsis (“Persians”)
Influenced Judaism in the Persian Empire: Jews in the Persian Empire were influenced by Zoroastrian ideas idea of God vs. Satan, idea of a last judgment and bodily resurrection, belief in the final defeat of evil, with help of a savior (Messiah), and the remaking of the world at the end of time.

18. III. Toward Monotheism: The Search for God in the Middle East
B. Judaism 1. Recorded in Hebrew Scripture 2. Judean exiles in Babylon 3. Distinctive conception of God 4. Foundation for both Christianity and Islam 5. Material world not an illusion
III. Toward Monotheism: The Search for God in the Middle East
B. Judaism
Recorded in Hebrew Scripture: Developed among the Hebrews, recorded in Hebrew scripture. Early tradition of migration to Palestine, led by Abraham; early tradition of enslavement in Egypt and escape; establishment of state of Israel ca b.c.e..
Judean exiles in Babylon: Judean exiles in Babylon retained their cultural identity, returned to homeland.
Distinctive conception of God: Yahweh demanded exclusive loyalty; relationship with Yahweh as a covenant (contract); lofty, transcendent deity—but communication was possible. From god of war to god of social justice and compassion.
Foundation for both Christianity and Islam.
Material world not an illusion: God gave humans mastery over the natural world.

20. IV. The Cultural Tradition of Classical Greece: The Search for a Rational Order
A. The Greek Way of Knowing 1. Flourished B.C.E. 2. Argument, Logic, Questions 3. Socrates, B.C.E. 4. Earliest classical Greek thinkers 5. Greek rationalism of Herodotus, Plato, and Aristotle
IV. The Cultural Tradition of Classical Greece: The Search for a Rational Order
The Greek Way of Knowing
Flourished B.C.E.: Flourished 600–300 b.c.e. (same time as city-states flourished).
Argument, Logic, Questions: Key element was the way questions were asked (argument, logic, questioning of received wisdom).
Socrates ( B.C.E.): Best example: Socrates (469–399 b.c.e.) of Athens constantly questioned assumptions. Conflicted with city authorities over Athenian democracy. Was accused of corrupting the youth, sentenced to death.
Earliest classical Greek thinkers: Applied rational questioning to nature, application to medicine.
Greek rationalism of Herodotus, Plato, and Aristotle: Application of Greek rationalism to understand human behavior. Herodotus asked: why did Greeks and Persians fight each other? Plato (429–348 b.c.e.) outlined design for a good society (Republic) led by a “philosopher-king.” Aristotle (384–322 b.c.e.) had the most complete expression of the Greek way of knowing.

22. IV. The Cultural Tradition of Classical Greece: The Search for a Rational Order
B. The Greek Legacy 1. Greek Rationalism Spread Widely
IV. The Cultural Tradition of Classical Greece: The Search for a Rational Order
B. The Greek Legacy
Greek Rationalism spread widely: Though many people continued traditional religious beliefs and practices, Greek rationalism was spread widely. It was helped by Alexander’s Empire and that of the Romans. Christian theology was expressed in Greek philosophical terms. Classical Greek texts were preserved in the Byzantine Empire. In Western Europe, there was a neglect of classical scholarship after the fall of the Roman Empire. Greek Rationalism was also a part of Islamic culture.

23. V. The Birth of Christianity…with Buddhist Comparisons
A. The Lives of the Founders 1. Gautama was royal, Jesus lower-class 2. Spiritual Seekers 3. “Wisdom Teachers” 4. Important differences
V. The Birth of Christianity…with Buddhist Comparisons
The Lives of the Founders
Gautama was royal, Jesus was from a lower-class family.
Spiritual Seekers: Both became spiritual seekers: Both were mystics, who claimed personal experience of another level of reality. They based their life’s work on their religious experience.
“Wisdom Teachers”: They were both “wisdom teachers” who challenged conventional values,     urged renunciation of wealth, stressed love or compassion as the basis of morality, and called for personal transformation of their followers.
Important differences: Jesus had Jewish tradition of a single personal diety; Jesus’ teaching was more social and political than Gautama’s; Jesus was active for about three years, Gautama for over forty. Jesus was executed as a criminal, while Gautama died of old age.

24. V. The Birth of Christianity…with Buddhist Comparisons
B. The Spread of New Religions 1. Followers transformed Jesus and Buddha into gods 2. How Christianity became a world religion 3. Spread of Christianity 4. Roman persecution of Christians
V. The Birth of Christianity…with Buddhist Comparisons
B. The Spread of New Religions
Though neither probably intended to create new religions, followers transformed Jesus and Buddha into gods.
How Christianity became a world religion: Process began with Paul (10–65 c.e.). Women had more opportunities (but still reflected patriarchy of time). Early converts were typically urban lower class and women, with the attraction of miracle stories and attraction of Christian care for each other.
Spread of Christianity: Paul spread to modern Turkey and Syria; Syria and Persia heartlands heartlands of the Church in the East with own organization and liturgy. Armenia was the first place where rulers adopted Christianity as a state religion. Syrian and Persian missionaries brought Christianity to southern India and Central Asia. By 570 c.e. some Arabs had become Christians. The Coptic church emerged in Egypt. North Africa furnished intellectuals and martyrs. During the fourth century Christianity became the state religion in Axum (modern Eritrea and Ethiopia). The Axum Christianity was linked to Coptic Church, but used local Ge’ez language.
Roman persecution of Christians: Romans persecuted Christians as “atheists” for their antagonism to all divine powers except their one god. This ended with the conversion of Emperor Constantine in early fourth century c.e. Later Roman emperors tried to use Christianity as social glue. Theodosius ordered closure of all polytheistic temples, started the process by which Roman Empire and later all of Europe became overwhelmingly Christian.

26. V. The Birth of Christianity…with Buddhist Comparisons
B. The Spread of New Religions 5. Buddhism 6. Roman polytheism 7. Networks of cultural connections
V. The Birth of Christianity…with Buddhist Comparisons
B. The Spread of New Religions
5. Buddhism: Ashoka’s support helped, but Buddhism was never promoted as India’s sole religion. Buddhism was ultimately absorbed into Hinduism in India.
6. In the Roman empire there was no renewal of Roman polytheism. Christianity endured in Europe, but took up some practices from the Roman world.
7. Both Buddhism and Christianity created networks of cultural connections.

28. V. The Birth of Christianity…with Buddhist Comparisons
C. Institutions, Controversies, and Divisions 1. Church councils defined texts of New Testament 2. Christianity developed male hierarchical organization 3. Division in Buddhism over Buddha’s teachings 4. Buddhism did not develop an overall church hierarchy
V. The Birth of Christianity…with Buddhist Comparisons
C. Institutions, Controversies, and Divisions
Series of church councils in 325 c.e., 451 c.e., and 553 c.e. defined which texts were part of the New Testament and which were abandoned.
Christianity developed a male hierarchical organization; women were excluded from priesthood; there was a concern for uniform doctrine and practice. The bishop of Rome (pope) emerged as dominant leader in Western Europe.
Buddhism clashed over the interpretation of the Buddha’s teachings. A series of councils did not prevent divisions. There was less sense of “right” and “wrong” than with Christian conflicts.
Buddhism did not develop an overall church hierarchy.