1. The Human Body: An Orientation

2. By the end of this chapter, you will be able to…
Describe the different levels of organization in the human body.
Describe anatomical position and use the descriptive and directional terms that refer to body structures, surfaces, and regions.
List the regions of the body and the localized areas within each region.
Identify body cavities and the organs found within each.
Define homeostasis and describe its significance.
List the characteristics of life.
Describe the components of a negative and positive feedback loop and explain how each helps to maintain homeostasis.
Discuss the key historical events in the development of anatomy and physiology

3. Anatomy – “HOW IT IS CONSTRUCTED”
The structure of body parts
Means “to cut up”
Dissection of human cadavers is the basis for understanding the structure of the human body

4. Physiology - “HOW IT WORKS”
The function of the body parts
What they do and how they do it
Means “the study of nature”
Much of the knowledge of physiology is gained through experimentation

5. Essential Concepts: The Complimentarily of Structure and Function
Function dependent on Structure:
mineral deposits harden – bones & teeth
keep blood flow unidirectional – valves in heart
Function is also specific to Location:
cartilage is flexible and smooth– ears, nose, joints
actin/myosin interacts – muscle fibers
hairs – skin, scalp, nose, ears, etc.

6. Essential Concepts: The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
Chemical
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Organismal

7. Essential Concepts: The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
Chemical
Atoms & bonds
Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, etc.
I. Molecules
small inorganic
small organic
proteins
carbohydrates
lipids
nucleic acids
II. Cells: cytoplasm and organelles assembled from various molecules

8. Essential Concepts: The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
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Cellular level –
Cells – the basic structural and functional units of the organism
Cells are specialized for particular functions, e.g., muscle cells are specialized for contracting
Cell organelles are subcompartments with specialized tasks

10. Essential Concepts: The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
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Essential Concepts: The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
Tissue level – Groups of different cell types cooperate to perform specific functions
Organ level - two or more different tissue types are organized to perform specific functions
skeletal muscle tissue

11. Essential Concepts: The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
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Essential Concepts: The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
Organ system level - connected organs that cooperate in related function(s)
The Digestive System

12. Essential Concepts: The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
Organismal level - all of the organ systems working together to maintain life constitute the living organism

13. 10 characteristics that make Life Unique

14. Movement - self initiated change in position, motion of internal parts
Responsiveness (irritability) - Ability to sense changes within, or around the organism and react to them
Growth - increase in body size
Reproduction - Parents produce offspring / producing new individuals
Respiration - Obtaining oxygen (O2), using it to release energy from food substances, and getting rid of wastes

15. Digestion - Chemically changing (breaking down) food substances, and getting rid of wastes
Absorption - Passage of Digested products (food substances) through membranes and into body fluids
Circulation - Movement of substances throughout the body
Assimilation - Changing absorbed substances into chemically different substances
Excretion - Removal of wastes

16. Movement I walk to McDonald’s. Examples of Movement walking/running
food moving from the mouth throughout the GI tract
white blood cells patrolling the body to fight infection
mitochondria moving in the cell in response to oxygen

17. Response
I stop at the traffic light

18. Growth
My body was growing!

19. Respiration
I am breathing air

20. Digestion
I get a hamburger and eat it

21. Absorption
My body soaks up the nutrients in the hamburger

22. Circulation
The hamburger travels through my body

23. Assimilation
The hamburger is changed into things my body needs

24. Excretion
Eventually, I need to go to the bathroom

25. Reproduction
Someday, I may produce offspring.

26. Essential Concept: Homeostasis

27. Survival Needs Things required for an organism’s survival
Nutrients
Oxygen
Water
Normal body temperature
Atmospheric pressure – for gas exchange
All, except atmospheric pressure, must be maintained within fairly narrow ranges

28. Necessary Life Functions
Metabolism = all the physical and chemical changes
= anabolism + catabolism
Homeostasis = tendency of the body to maintain a stable, balanced, internal environment.
“Sameness”

29. Homeostatic Systems Three Basic Components: Receptor
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Homeostatic Systems
Three Basic Components:
Receptor
detects change in a variable (stimulus/stress)
sends input (information) to a control center
Control Center
assesses input; sends output to effector(s)
Effector
causes response, i.e., an “effect” which is triggered by output

30. Negative Feedback Control
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Results in a return to homeostatic equilibrium because the response reduces stimulus (stress)
Examples:
Regulation of blood glucose
Regulation of body temperature
Most other physiological mechanisms

31. Positive Feedback Control
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Results in a shift to a new homeostatic equilibrium because the response increases the stimulus level (stress) [“snowball effect”]
Examples:
Blood clotting
Pregnancy/Childbirth
Immune responses
A few others
Most are responses to special conditions resulting in a new, temporary physiologic state

32. Homeostatic Imbalances
Pathological processes with a particular set of characteristics in which some or all parts of the body are not functioning correctly
diseases or injuries may be local or systemic
different systemic changes are present and may suggest a cause
symptoms - subjective changes in body function, not observable; reported by the individual, e.g., pain
signs - objective changes which are observable, e.g., temperature, pulse

33. Anatomic Terminology
Anatomic terms describe directions within the body as well as the body’s reference planes, cavities, and regions.

34. The Language of Anatomy
Anatomical position: a constant reference point
Directional terms: help you determine the exact location of a structure when navigating the body
Regional terms: used to designate body areas that have perform special functions
Axial
Appendicular

35. Directional Terms: Grouped together in pairs of opposites
Superior: above
Inferior: below
Example:
The shoulder is ____ to the elbow.
Superior
the hand is _____ to the wrist.
Inferior

36. Directional Terms: Grouped together in pairs of opposites
Anterior: toward the front
Posterior: toward the back
Ventral: can be used instead of anterior
Dorsal: can be used instead of posterior

37. Table 1.1A Orientation & Directional Terms

38. Directional Terms: Grouped together in pairs of opposites
Medial: toward the body’s midline
Lateral: away from the body’s midline
Proximal: closest to the point of origin
Distal: farthest from the point of origin

39. Table 1.1B Orientation & Directional Terms

40. Directional Terms: Grouped together in pairs of opposites
Supine: lying face up
Prone: lying face down
Cranial: (aka - Cephalic) toward the head
Caudal: toward the tail
Ipsilateral: On the same side of the body or structure
Contralateral: On the opposite side of the body or structure
Superficial: Closer to the surface
Deep: Farther down below the surface

41. Table 1.1C Orientation & Directional Terms

42. Anatomical Position
Homework: Fill out the chart on the body regions

43. Figure 1.7A Regional terms for body areas

44. Figure - Regional terms for body areas

45. Axial Portion - head, neck, trunk Appendicular Portion - arms & legs
1. Several body cavities 2. Layers of membranes within cavities 3. Variety of organs and organ systems within cavities (VISCERA = internal organs. "Visceral organs")

46. Body Planes and Sections
Sagittal
Frontal
Transverse (cross)

47. Body Cavities Dorsal body cavity cranial vertebral or spinal
Ventral body cavity
thoracic
pleural
mediastinum
Abdominopelvic
abdominal
pelvic

48. Other Body Cavities Oral cavity – mouth
Nasal cavity – located in the nose
Orbital cavities – house the eye
Middle ear cavities – contain small bones of the middle ear
Synovial cavities – within capsule around freely moveable joints

49. Label the body cavities (use your book)

50. Serous Membrane - two layered, covers organs
Outer layer = parietal
Inner layer = visceral (lines the organs)
Serous fluid – lubricating fluid

51. Pleura = lungs
Pericardium = heart
Peritoneum = organs (abdominopelvic region)

52. Membranes in the Ventral Cavity
Like a “Fist in a balloon”
Membrane inside a membrane with a narrow enclosed space in between
parietal
the outer membrane
on the body wall
visceral
the inner membrane
on the organ wall
Space
filled with watery fluid
Body cavity lined with serous membrane (serosa) which produces the serous fluid
Membrane named depending on its position, and the cavity’s organs inside
parietal pericardium
visceral pericardium

53. Body Regions
Umbilical: the area around the belly button; includes – parts of the large and small intestine, stomach & abdominal aorta.
Epigastric: superior to the umbilical region; includes – most of pancreas, portions of stomach, liver, inferior vena cava, & duodenum.
Hypogastric (pubic): inferior to the umbilical region; includes – urinary bladder, ureters, uterus & ovaries (females).

54. Body Regions
Right & Left Iliac (inguinal):on either side of the hypogastric; includes – portions of the small and large intestine.
Right & Left Lumbar (loin): either side of the umbilical region; includes – portion of intestines and kidneys.
Right & Left Hypochondriac: either side of the epigastric region; includes – diaphragm, spleen, right side of liver, part of pancreas.

55. Abdominopelvic Regions
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Abdominopelvic Regions

56. Homework: Organ Systems Concept Map

57. Historical Development of anatomy & Physiology

58. Historical Development – Grecian Period
Hippocrates
Father of medicine
Attributed disease to natural causes rather than to the displeasure of the gods
Humoral theory: when blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm were balanced, the person would be healthy and have an even disposition
Humor = Fluid

59. Humoral Theory – Agents in Metabolism
The Four Humors are the metabolic agents of the four elements in the human body. 
The right balance and purity of them is essential to maintaining health. 
The Four Humors and the elements they serve are as follows:
BLOOD – AIR
PHLEGM - WATER
YELLOW BILE - FIRE
BLACK BILE - EARTH     

60. The Psychological Effects of the Humors
Blood promotes a feeling of joy, optimism, enthusiasm, affection and wellbeing.
Phlegm induces passivity, sluggishness, emotionalism, and sentimentality.
Yellow Bile being inflammatory it provokes anger, irritability, envy, jealousy and courage.
Black Bile makes one melancholy and withdrawn.  It encourages caution, realism, and pessimism.

61. The Four Temperaments - Humoral Theory
Sanguine: blood predominate
Element: Air  
Choleric: too much yellow bile
Element: Fire   
Melancholic: overproduction of black bile
Element: Earth   
Phlematic: too much phlegm
Element: Water  

64. Historical Development – Grecian Period
Aristotle
First known account of embryology
Described the development of a heart in a chick embryo
Established a type of scientific method for obtaining data

65. Historical Development – Grecian Period
Erasistratus:
Father of physiology
Interested in what caused diseases and disorders and what organs were affected
Some of his ideas were still based on mystical concepts

66. Historical Development – Grecian Period
Herophilus:
Criticized for the use of vivisection
Vivisection: dissection of living animals
Described as a butcher who had dissected as many as 600 living human beings, some of them in public demonstrations

67. Historical Development - Roman Era
Claudius Galen:
Believed in the humors
Experimentalist
Explained nearly all bodily functions
Work contained MANY errors because he made conclusions regarding human functions on the basis of data obtained from animals

68. Historical Development – Middle Ages
Dissections of cadavers were totally prohibited during this period
Examination by inspection and palpation were allowed for mysterious deaths
During the plague epidemic, a few necropsies were allowed in hope to determine its cause
Necropsy: Post-mortem examination of a non-human animal

69. Historical Development - Renaissance
Characterized by a rebirth of science
Vesalius
Father of anatomy
Challenged Galen’s teachings
Beautifully illustrated and described body systems and individual organs in a book

70. Historical Development – 17th and 18th Centuries
William Harvey
explanation of blood flow
Father of modern physiology
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
Development and use of the microscope
Achieved magnification of 270 times
View blood cells and striated appearance of muscle

71. Historical Development – 19th and 20th Centuries
Cell theory
All living organisms are composed of cells and the products of cells
Anatomy and Physiology has become highly specialized due to the increase of technology
Homework: Medical and Applied Science Worksheet