1. Note: Several memory demonstration activities are included in this slide presentation. The instructor may elect to use these, or to delete them. There are numerous online memory demonstration activities that are available in lieu of these.

2. Chapter Outline What is memory? Memory encoding Memory storage
Memory Retrieval
Forgetting
Tips and techniques to improving memory

3. N-F L-C-B S-U-S A-D-V D-B-F -I-
Read the letter clusters below individually at a rate of one per second and see if you can repeat them!

5. So you think you can remember?
N-F-L C-B-S U-S-A D-V-D F-B-I
TRY TO REMEMBER NOW AFTER THE LETTERS ARE REARRANGED! As this activity suggests, the human memory does not function like a camera, instead the system combines new input with previously stored information to create a representation of an event rather than a copy of it.

6. What is Memory?
Except ofcourse during an exam.
Learning that has persisted over time-information that has been stored and in many cases-recalled.

7. Information Processing Theory (Humans as Computers!!)
Three step process….
Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.
Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.
the analogies for encoding and retrieval are similar to computer, but the storage analogy is misleading. Human memory change over time and are rough reconstructions rather than exact copies of past events. storage on a hard drive remains unchanged indefinitely and you can retrieve an exact copy. The human memory system is a dynamic process.

8. Round Letter Task PENCIL BELIEF CLOVER AUTO GRAVEL PICKLE PLASTER
How many R’s?
As best you can, count the number of R’s in the following word list.
PENCIL
BELIEF
CLOVER
AUTO
GRAVEL
PICKLE
PLASTER
BENEFIT
BEAVER
COLLEGE
CAPTAIN
SKATE
HAMMER
Note: The next few slides present a dramatic demonstration of levels of processing in your own students’ memories. For it to be effective, do not forewarn them of the upcoming memory tasks.
For this slide, after the word list has been presented, allow students to respond with their counts. You might respond to their estimates with “higher” and “lower” until someone gets it right.
How many did you count? 6

9. Good/Power Task WEDDING COINS MOTHER TOOTH SQUEEZE DANCE PILLOW
Rate each word POWERFUL or WEAK
Do not bother to keep track of anything.
Here we go!
A few students may be confused that they are not to count or track anything. Reassure them that they need only attend to the task.
WEDDING
COINS
MOTHER
TOOTH
SQUEEZE
DANCE
PILLOW
TRACTOR
BLADE
YARD
CANDY
LIVER
TORNADO
Thank you!

10. Round Letter Task Remember counting round letters?
BEAVER
CAPTAIN
COLLEGE
SKATE
HAMMER
BENEFIT
PLASTER
BELIEF
PENCIL
CLOVER
PICKLE
AUTO
GRAVEL
Remember counting round letters?
Please list all of the words from that first list that you can remember.
Before revealing the word list, give students some time to write down what they remember. Once it appears that no one is writing anything, reveal the list. One by one, call out each word on the list and have students raise their hand if they remembered it and wrote it down. As you go, announce a rough estimate of the number of students who got each word. For small enough classes, you may want to keep track of how many words no one recalled. Point out that this was a difficult task because they were not forewarned they would have to remember anything, but in particular because they processed each word superficially, by merely examining the shape of the letters in the word.
7-10

11. Good/Power Task Remember rating POWERFULL/WEAK words?
BLADE
TRACTOR
CANDY
LIVER
TORNADO
YARD
PILLOW
SQUEEZE
WEDDING
COINS
DANCE
MOTHER
TOOTH
Remember rating POWERFULL/WEAK words?
Please list all of the words from that second list that you can remember.
Before revealing the word list on this slide, give students some time to write down what they remember. Once it appears that no one is writing anything, or after a comparable amount of time to what you allowed for the previous slide, reveal the list. One by one, call out each word on the list and have students raise their hand if they remembered it and wrote it down. As you go, give a rough estimate of the number of students who got each word. You may want to keep track of how many words no one recalled. Point out that this task was easier than the other one despite their being told not to keep track of anything. The difference is because they processed each word meaningfully.
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7-11

12. Levels of Processing How many of you did equally well on both lists?
How many did better on the first list?
How many did better on the second?
Rating Good / Powerful is “deeper” processing than counting round letters
Deep processing automatically leads to better recall
Why?
Generally, almost the entire class will have done better on the second list. Tie this in to depth/levels of processing theory on the next slide.

13. Atkinson & Shiffrin 3 System Model
This model was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin that memory stroage involves three separate systems which are: sensory memory, short term and long term memory.

14. Sensory Memory Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968) Sensory Memory
Encoding
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
Attention
Detailed information
In original sensory form
Very brief duration
Echoic (Auditory) Memory
Iconic (Visual) Memory
Rehearsal
Retrieval

15. Sensory Memory Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968) Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
Attention
Attention: Sensory Memory  STM

16. Short Term Memory Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968) Sensory Memory
Long Term Memory
Limited duration (about 30 seconds)
Limited capacity (7 ± 2)

17. Short Term Memory Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968) Sensory Memory
Long Term Memory
Rehearsal

18. Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968)
Working Memory
(alternative model to STM)
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Central Executive
Long Term Memory
Phonological Loop

19. Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Working Memory
(alternative model to STM)
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Sensory Memory
Central Executive
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
Phonological Loop

20. Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Working Memory
(alternative model to STM)
Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968)
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Encoding
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Central Executive
Long Term Memory
Retrieval
Rehearsal
Just like sensory memory has different components for different inputs, WM has different components to process information.
Visual and spatial information photos and maps are processed in the visuo-spatial sketchpad while verbal information, meaning words and numbers are processed in the phonological loop.
The 3rd component, the central executive integrates information from the phonological and visuo spatial sketch pad and long term memory to process information.
Phonological Loop
Encoding = Memorizing
Retrieval = Remembering

21. Long Term Memory Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968) Short Term Memory
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
Rehearsal
Relatively permanent with “unlimited” capacity

22. Sensory Memory Long Term Memory
Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968)
Sensory Memory
Long Term Memory
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
Detailed Information
In Original Sensory Form
Very Brief Duration
Echoic (Auditory) Memory
Iconic (Visual) Memory

23. Sensory Memory Short Term Memory
Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968)
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
Rehearsal
Limited duration (about 30 seconds)
Limited capacity (7 ± 2)

24. Short Term Memory Capacity
7 ± 2 “Chunks”
Backward Digit Span Task
Note: After the animation of the 7 slots being filled with 7 digits, the Backward Digit Span Demonstration begins.
Backward Digit Span Demonstration: Click to begin a trial. Ppt will slowly present a set of digits one at a time and finally, the word GO! On appearance of the word GO!, have students chorus together the digit set backwards. Watch for students “cheating” by writing down the numbers. Invite students who sense they are not going to be able to do it correctly to drop out so as not to confuse the students who are trying to perform. After the chorus, click to present the answer key. Click again to start the next trial. The number of digits in each trial set increases by one each trail, from 2 to 9. Treat the first trial or two as practice, clarifying the procedure. At the end of the demo, explain that to estimate the capacity of their STM, students should add one to the number of digits they can do perfectly in Backward Digit Span, because one slot of STM is taken up by attending to the process of reversing the order of the digits.
Note: It is very rare that any student in the class will be able to get the 9 digit final trial correct. 8
5 2 2 1 2 5 1 6 5 6 3 7 9 2 8 3 4
GO! 5 4 6
GO! 6 9 3 8 1 9
GO! 3 7
GO! 2
GO! 4
GO! 4 5 3 2
GO!

25. Short Term Memory Long Term Memory
Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968)
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
Relatively Permanent with “Unlimited” Capacity
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory

26. Long-Term Memory

27. Long-Term Memory These will be examined in turn:
Explicit Long-Term Memory (Declarative)- conscious recollection of specific events and facts that can be verbally communicated.
episodic memory
semantic memory
Implicit Long-Term Memory (Nondeclarative)
procedural memory
classical conditioning
Note: Of course, this is not an exhaustive listing of all the types of long-term memory, nor of all the types of explicit and implicit memory.

28. Explicit (declarative) Memories
Episodic Memories (e.g. remembering your trip to Austin) personal diary
Semantic Memories: remembering that Austin is the capital of Texas. Encyclopedia
Explicit memory refers to recollection of specific facts and events and can be verbally communicated. It holds information that we intentionally and consciouly recollect. There are two types of explicit memories, episidoc and semantic. Episodic memory is the where, when and what? Whereas semantic memory refers to general knowledge, or objective facts and information.
Declarative Memory
conscious recollection of specific facts and events that can be verbally

29. Storage: Implicit LTM Nondeclarative Memory
affected by a past experience
without consciously recalling it
Procedural Memory
Classical Conditioning

30. Implicit (nondeclarative) Memories
Procedural Memories (e.g. riding a bicycle without thinking about it)
Conditioned Memories (e.g. the dog salivating at the sight of food)
Implicit stores procedures, motor skills, habits, and simple classically conditioned Reponses.

31. Retrieval
There are 3 basic ways in which information can be pulled from LTM
Recall
Recognition
Relearning
Think of ltm as a library. We retrieve information similar to the process you use to locate a check out a book. But Long term memory is impressive It only takes moments to search through your memory storehouse to find the information you want.
In general researchers use thre types of tasks to measure retrieval

32. Retrieval
Recall
a. free recall (e.g. answering an essay questions about the 19th amendment.)
b. cued recall (e.g. completing the sentence: 19th amendment gave the women the right to _______?
Think of ltm as a library. We retrieve information similar to the process you use to locate a check out a book. But Long term memory is impressive It only takes moments to search through your memory storehouse to find the information you want.
In general researchers use thre types of tasks to measure retrieval

33. Free recall task Name all 50 States
Think of ltm as a library. We retrieve information similar to the process you use to locate a check out a book. But Long term memory is impressive It only takes moments to search through your memory storehouse to find the information you want.
In general researchers use thre types of tasks to measure retrieval

34. Cued recall task
Think of ltm as a library. We retrieve information similar to the process you use to locate a check out a book. But Long term memory is impressive It only takes moments to search through your memory storehouse to find the information you want.
In general researchers use thre types of tasks to measure retrieval

35. Retrieval
2. Recognition: ability to identify the correct choice from other targets (e.g. multiple choice questions)
3. Relearning: method percentage of time saved when material is relearned compared with the time required to learn the material originally. (comprehensive final exam)

36. Recognition Task Can you name the 7 dwarfs?
It cannot be accessed because the retrieval cues are not present.

38. Forgetting
The inability to bring to mind information that was previously remembered.
What causes us to forget?
Researchers have proposed a number of different explanations of forgetting.

39. Encoding Failure
Note: Each penny has a different design. Only one is correct. Your students have seen the correct design many times, and probably have even carefully examined a penny once in a while. Almost no one can recall which penny is correct. This is an example of retrieval failure.
Actual penny is C

40. Why do we forget?
Encoding failure: information was never stored in memory. (e.g. coins)
Interference: one piece of information displaces another.
Proactive (pro~ forward) interference (you can’t retain new information)
retroactive (retro~ backward) (you forget old stored information) interference
Proactive interferences occurs when you cannot learn a new task because an old task had been learnt. E.g friend has a black belt in taekwondo and was trying to learn the moves in the kick boxing class but couldn’t remember the moves.
Retroactive: occurs when you forget a previously learned task due to the learning of the new task.

41. Proactive v. Retroactive Interference
Proactive Old information interferes with the learning of new information--old memories disrupt new memories “passwords)---entering old passwords
Retroactive
New information interferes with remembering old information. You cannot recall old information because of new information you learned
“Learning a new language”
Interference theory states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt one another.
proactively
OLD NEW
French Spanish
retroactively

42. Forgetting: Memory Failure
Decay Theory
passage of time  forgetting
Decay theory: unused information fades over time

43. Why do we forget?
Motivated forgetting: loss of information that is emotionally unpleasant. (e.g. traumatic event of sexual abuse) –repress the memory completely (PTSD victims experience significant memory loss
Retrieval failure: information is in long term memory, but cannot be accessed (tip of the tongue)
It cannot be accessed because the retrieval cues are not present.

44. Memory: Organization Schemas
scripts (event schema)
A schema is a preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information. It influences attention and absorption of new information.
Schema: a schema is a preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information. It influences attention and absorption of new knowledge.

45. Schemas
First arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step. Otherwise you are pretty well set.
After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places.
Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell, After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life. (

46. Reconstructive memory
Proposed by the field of cognitive psychology
Remembering is influenced by our beliefs, experiences, expectations and schemas.
It suggests that, in the absence of all information, we fill in the gaps to make more sense of what happened.

47. Reconstructive Memory
an account of an event that has been pieced together from a few highlights. (e.g. you were asked to recall the last time you saw “john”?
Elaborate memory recall which is influenced by perception, semantic memory, beliefs, schema…..etc
Elizabeth Loftus studies suggested that the reconstructive process is subject to distortions (e.g. eyewitness testimony)
Elizabeth Loftus studies on reconstrucive nature of human memory suggest that eyewitness testimony is highly subject to error and that it should be viewed with caution.
Schemas can contribute to stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new information that does not conform to our established ideas about the world.
Loftus found use of leading questions can lead to memories being manipulated. When asked how fast a car was traveling, by changing the verb “hitting” to “smashing” into another, changes the estimate of speed people gace. This is because the words lead to different memories.

48. Eyewitness Testimony https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJK4pvmbkBo
Distortion
Bias
Inaccuracy
Individuals’ existing schemata and stereotypes influence not only how they interpret new information but also how they recall the information over time. Schema effects memory distortion because your predispositions about the world will affect how you remember a particular event.
Eyewtiness testimony is what happens when a person witnesse a crime an accident or other legally important events and later recalls for the court of other officials the details of the event. It involves a more complicated

49. Memory techniques from the science of psychology
Mnemonics: remembering a list of stages by making a word out of the first letters of the names of the stages : e.g. PEMDAS—”Please Excuse my Dear Aunt Sally”
Elaborative rehearsal: involves relating new information to something you already know.—Associating new materials with info you already know. French word “escaliers” for stairs escalator for English
Maintenance rehearsal
PEDMAS order of operation “Please excuse my dear aunt sally” you can memorize a simple word or phrase which in turn stands for more complicated information
Elaborative reharsal is a type of encoding that links new informations to information already stored in long term memory. It is easier to remember something if you associate it with something you already know.

50. Memory techniques continued…
Organization: arrange info, rework material and give it a structure that will help you. Place information into logical categories.
Chucking: breaking down larger pieces of information into smaller easily managed information.
Overlearning: To continue studying or practicing after initial proficiency has been achieved so as to reinforce the learned material.

51. Study tips continued….
Massed practice: new material or skill to be learned repeatedly in a short period or time.
Spaced practice: breaks studying into several brief sessions with rest periods in between.
You can think of massed practice as cramming, it is not a good startegy. Spaced practice is more effective than massed practice. It is more effective to learn something by learning it during 6 different sessions than to try to learn it in a single hour session.

52. Study Tips - Encoding Give Undivided Attention Process Deeply
Make Associations
Use Imagery
Use Chunking
Encode Early and Often
Note: Many of these tips may seem obvious, but it is commonplace for students to dismiss and ignore these tips, believing they [the students] are different, or perhaps that the benefit isn’t worth the effort.

53. Study Tips - Rehearse Redo notes. Talk to others. Test yourself.
Ask yourself questions.
Rest and eat well.

54. Spacing Effect
DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!!
Questions?????

55. Chapter Review Identify the process of memory.
Explain how memories are encoded.
Discuss how memories are stored.
Summarize how memories are retrieved.
Describe how the failure of encoding and retrieval are involved in forgetting.
Evaluate study strategies based on an understanding of memory.
Identify the multiple functions of memory in human life.
Note: Instructors may use the learning objectives presented on this slide to review the chapter material.