1. What Is Sociology? The systematic study of human society. Systematic
Scientific discipline that focuses attention on patterns of behavior.
Human Society
Group behavior is the primary focus; how groups influence individuals and vice versa.
At the “heart of sociology” is the sociological perspective, which offers a unique view of society.

2. The Sociological Perspective
1. Seeing the general in the particular.
Looking for general patterns in the behavior of particular people.
Society shapes our life experiences, so we can learn something about society (the general) in behavior (the particular).
2. Seeing the strange in the familiar.
Looking for oddities and studying exceptions.
Not taking for granted that which normally is taken for granted.

3. The Sociological Perspective
3. Seeing personal choice in social context.
People don’t simply just decide to do things.
Ex: Durkheim’s 1897 Suicide Study
Men, Protestants, Unmarried, Wealthy  High Suicide Rates
Why?
Explained differences in suicide rates based on social integration and social ties.

4. Suicide Rates Across the U. S
Suicide Rates Across the U.S. Does this map support of refute Durkheim’s theory? Why?

5. The Sociological Imagination
Similar to the SP.
Term coined by C. Wright Mills.
Transforms personal problems into public issues.
A critical quality of mind that helps people “to use information and to develop reason in order to achieve lucid summations of what is going on in the world and of what may be happening within themselves” (Mills).
The understanding that social outcomes are shaped by social context, social actors, and social actions.

6. Sociological Theory

7. Sociological Theory
Theory - a statement of how and why facts are related
Sociological theory explains social behavior in the real world
Theories are tested by gathering evidence.
2 Fundamental Questions in Theory Building:
What issues should we study?
How should we connect the facts?

8. Development of Sociological Theory - contributions
Early thinkers and their main ideas
August Comte ( )- Father of Sociology
Believed in systematic study of society
Harriet Martineau – many contributions – comparative studies, writings on methods, gender issues
Herbert Spencer – concept of evolution to the study of society
Emile Durkheim – First professor of Sociology – emphasized on understanding human behavior in the larger social context – Study of social change and its consequences – Anomie and alienation
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

9. Development of Sociological Theory - contributions
Max Weber
Verstehen – understanding subjective meaning people attach to their actions – how they explain their actions
Sociologist cannot simple borrow methods of natural sciences
Contribution to methodology – “Ideal Type”
Karl Marx
Social change and conflict
W.E.B. Dubois – influential work on race
Charles Cooley – micro sociology
Robert Merton – developing sociology by combining theory and research and integrating Macro and Micro sociology
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

10. Sociology, Eleventh Edition
Sociological Theory
Sociologists look to one or more theoretical approaches to formulate theory.
Theoretical Approach (or Paradigm) - a set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking
3 Major Sociological Paradigms
Structural-Functional
Social-Conflict
Symbolic-Interaction
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

11. Structural –Functional Paradigm
S-F Approach – a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability
Points to social structure, any relatively stable pattern of social behavior
Shape our lives!
Examples: Families, the Workplace, Education

12. Structural Functionalism
Looks for each SS’s social functions, the consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society as a whole
All social patterns function to tie people together and to keep society going in its present form
Macro-Level Orientation – a broad focus on social structures that shape society a whole
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

13. Who’s Who in S-F? Auguste Comte Emile Durkheim Herbert Spencer
Pointed out the need to keep society unified when traditions were breaking down rapidly.
Emile Durkheim
Helped establish sociology as a university discipline.
Herbert Spencer
Compared society to the human body (the organic approach).
Talcott Parsons
Sought to identify tasks that every society must perform.
Robert K. Merton
Pointed out that social structures all have many functions, some more obvious than others.
Distinguished between:
Manifest & Latent Functions
Dysfunctions (-)

14. Merton on Functions
Manifest Functions – the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern
Latent Functions – the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern
Example: Higher Education
Manifest Functions?
Provide information and skills people need to hold jobs.
Latent Functions?
Marriage Brokering
Limiting Unemployment

15. Sociology, Eleventh Edition
Merton on Functions
But not all the effects of social structure are good…
Social Dysfunction – any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society
Examples?
Increasing Income Inequality
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

16. Social-Conflict Paradigm
Social-Conflict Approach – a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change
Highlights how factors such as class, race, ethnicity, gender, and age are linked to inequality in terms of money, power, education, and social prestige
Rejects the S-F idea that social structure promotes the operation of society as a whole, focusing instead on how any social pattern benefits some people while hurting others

17. Social-Conflict Paradigm
S-C theorists look at ongoing conflict between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people.
People on top try to protect their privileges while the disadvantaged try to gain more for themselves.
Example: Higher Education
Schooling reproduces class inequality from one generation to the next by “tracking” students into either college prep or vocational courses.
Many sociologists use S-C analysis to help reduce inequality.
Macro-Level Orientation
Who’s Who?: Karl Marx - Emphasized the importance of social class in inequality and social conflict.

18. The Gender-Conflict Approach
Gender-Conflict Approach – a point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between women and men
Closely linked to feminism, support for social equality for women and men.
Importance lies in making us aware of how society places men in positions of power over women.
Examples:
Home  Men = Head of Household
Workplace  Men = More Income & Powerful Positions
Mass Media  Women = Sexualized

19. The Race-Conflict Approach
Race-Conflict Approach – a point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories
Importance lies in making us aware of how society places select groups in positions of power over minorities.

20. Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm
Symbolic-Interaction Approach – a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals
Micro-Level Orientation – a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations

21. Sociology, Eleventh Edition
Symbolic Interaction
Sees society as nothing more than the reality that people construct for themselves as they interact with one another.
We live in a word of symbols and we attach meaning to virtually all of these.
Example: Words, Wink, Flag
Therefore we create reality as we define our surroundings, decide what we think of others, and shape our own identities.
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

22. Who’s Who in S-I? Max Weber (Doesn’t really fit in any one paradigm.)
Taught us to understand a setting from the actor’s point of view
George Herbert Mead
Examined how personalities develop from social experience.
Erving Goffman
Creator of dramaturgical analysis, which describes how we resemble actors on a stage as we play out our various roles.

23. Critical Evaluation Structural-Functional Social-Conflict
Too broad.
Ignores inequalities of social class, race & gender.
Focuses on stability at the expense of conflict.
Social-Conflict
Ignores how shared values and mutual interdependence unify society.
Pursues political goals.
Symbolic-Interaction
Ignores larger social structures.
Ignores the effects of culture.
Ignores factors such as class, gender & race

24. False Division This is a false division.
The fullest understanding of our social world comes from using all the paradigms.
Sociologists rarely identify with just one paradigm.
May change from project-to-project.
May change over the course of their career.
May combine multiple paradigms.

25. Applying the Paradigms: Sports
Functions of Sports
S-F approach looks at the ways in which sports help society operate.
What are the functions of sports?
Manifest – providing recreation, a means of getting in physical shape, harmless way to let off steam
Latent – building social relationships, creating jobs, encouraging competition and the pursuit of success (both American ideals)
Dysfunctional – recruiting to college based on athletic ability instead of academic prowess

26. Applying the Paradigms: Sports
Sports and Conflict
S-C analysis of sports points out that the games people play reflect their social standing.
Income, Gender, Race
Also points out that sports are a big business that provides big profits for a small number of people.

27. Sociology, Eleventh Edition
Sports as Interaction
Sports as Interaction
Views sporting events as complex, face-to-face interactions.
Guided by Rules
But people are still spontaneous and unpredictable.
Sports are seen as an ongoing process rather than a system.
Each player understands and interprets the game a little differently.
The behavior of any single player may change overtime.
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

28. Society: The Basics, 10th Edition by John Macionis
Race and Sport: “Stacking” in Professional Football Does race play a part in professional sports? Looking at the various positions in professional football, we see that white players are more likely to play the central and offensive positions. What do you make of this pattern? Source: Lapnick (2007)
Society: The Basics, 10th Edition by John Macionis
Copyright  2009 by Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

29. Research Methods

30. How Do We Know? Belief or Faith Expert Testimony Simple Agreement
Science - a logical system that bases knowledge on direct systematic observation
Relies on evidence.
Most widely accepted way of knowing.
This is where sociology falls.

31. Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence
“Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.”
“The United States is a middle-class society in which most people are more or less equal.”
“Most poor people don’t want to work.”
“Differences in the behavior of females and males are just ‘human nature.’ ”
All of these are disputed by sociological evidence!

32. Sociology, Eleventh Edition
Rich people more likely to cheat than poor people; Wealthy  more apt to lie, dodge traffic laws
The seven-part study by psychologists at the University of California Berkeley and the University of Toronto analyzed people's behavior through a series of experiments.
For instance, drivers of expensive vehicles such as Mercedes, BMW and Toyota's Prius hybrid were seen breaking the rules more often at four-way intersections than people who drove a Camry or Corolla.
In another test using a game of dice, given the opportunity to win a $50 prize, people who self-reported high socio-economic status were more likely to lie and say that they had rolled higher numbers than they actually had.
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

33. Possible explanations
The exercise showed that people could be trained to think more highly of themselves, and that they would in turn act with more greed and less ethicality, demonstrating that status drives greed.
The study, which appears in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, theorizes that a series of factors "may give rise to a set of culturally shared norms among upper class individuals.
Previous research linking poverty and violent crime also disproves the notion that all poor people are more ethical than the rich, it added.
However, self-interest is "a more fundamental motive among society's elite, and the increased want associated with greater wealth and status can promote wrongdoing," it said.
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

34. Applied and Clinical Sociology
Social Policy
Example – Northeast Florida Center for Community Initiatives
Homeless Census and surveys
Magnolia project in Underprivileged areas of Jacksonville Florida
Medical Sociology – How healthcare professional deal with disease
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

35. Sociology, Eleventh Edition
Palliative and Supportive Care, Volume 14, Issue 4 August 2016, pp
Use of a values inventory as a discussion aid about end-of-life care: A pilot randomized controlled trial
Shailaja Menon (a1) (a2), Laurence B. McCullough (a3), Rebecca J. Beyth (a4), Marvella E. Ford (a5), Donna Espadas (a1) (a2) and Ursula K. Braun (a1) (a6)
Abstract:
We examined the utility of a brief values inventory as a discussion aid to elicit patients' values and goals for end-of-life (EoL) care during audiotaped outpatient physician–patient encounters.
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

36. 3 Frameworks for Investigation
Scientific/Positivist Sociology: the study of society based on scientific observation of social behavior
Relies on empirical evidence, which is information we can verify with our senses.
Interpretive Sociology: the study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world

37. Positivist Sociology
Positivist Sociology - the study of society based on scientific observation of social behavior
Main Question: How does society work?
Concepts, Variables, and Measurement
Concept – a mental construct that represents some aspect of the world in a simplified form
Examples: Family, Economy, Social Class, Gender
Variable – a concept whose values change from case to case
Examples: Height, Social Class

38. Sociology, Eleventh Edition
Positivist Sociology
Measurement - a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case
Some variables are really easy to measure.
Ex: Blood Pressure
Others, particularly sociological variables, are more difficult.
Ex: Social Class
Researchers have to make decisions about how to operationalize a variable, stating exactly what they are measuring.
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

39. Positivist Sociology Statistics
Sociologists often deal with and study large numbers of people.
How can we easily report income for thousands or even millions of people?
List of Everyone
Descriptive Statistics – state what is “average” for a large population - Most Common?
Mean – the arithmetic average of all measures
Median – the score at the halfway point in an ascending series of numbers
Mode – the score that occurs most often

40. Positivist Sociology Reliability & Validity
Measurements must be both reliable and valid.
Reliability – consistency in measurement
Do repeated measurements give the same result each time?
Validity – actually measuring what you intend to measure
Is your measure actually gathering data on what you are interested in?
Objectivity
PS calls for researchers to be neutral, objective and value-free.

41. Positivist Sociology Correlation & Cause
Correlation – a relationship in which two or more variables change together
Cause & Effect – a relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another
Ex: ↓ Social Integration  ↑ Suicide Rates (Durkheim 1897)
Correlation ≠ Causation
Just because two variables change together does NOT mean that they have a cause and effect relationship.
When two variables change together, but neither one causes the other, sociologists describe the relationship as spurious.
It is usually the result of some third factor.
Ex: ↑ Ice Cream Sales  Assaults
Spurious Variable? Summer

42. Limitations of Scientific Sociology
Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions.
Findings represent how categories of people typically act
The mere presence of the researcher may affect the behavior being studied
Hawthorne Effect
Social patterns change across time & place
Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult.

43. Interpretive Sociology
Interpretive Sociology - the study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world
Major Q: How do people attach meaning to their actions?
PS holds close to science and is well-suited for lab research whereas IS does not hold as close to science and is better suited for fieldwork.
Quantitative Data – numerical measurements of outward behavior
Qualitative Data – researchers’ perceptions of how people understand their world
Positivist Sociology
Interpretive Sociology
Focus: Observable Action
Focus: Meaning of Action
Reality: Exists “Out There”
Reality: Socially Constructed
Data: Quantitative
Data: Qualitative

44. Ethical Guidelines for Research
Sociologists Should…
Strive to be technically competent & fair-minded.
Disclose findings in full without omitting significant data & be willing to share their data.
Protect the safety, rights and privacy of subjects.
Obtain informed consent (IC).
IC – subjects are aware of the risks and responsibilities and agree to participate
Disclose all sources of funding and avoid conflicts of interest.
Demonstrate cultural sensitivity.
Submit to IRB review.
Examples of Violations:
Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment
Tuskegee Syphilis Studies

45. Research Methods

46. 2016 Presidential debate Who has the better temperament?
Issue of validity
Max Weber’s ideal type

47. sanguine (optimistic and social)
Temperament - the combination of mental, physical, and emotional traits of a person; natural predisposition.
Four temperaments is a proto-psychological theory that suggests that there are four fundamental personality types:
sanguine (optimistic and social)
choleric (short-tempered or irritable)
melancholic (analytical and quiet)
phlegmatic (relaxed and peaceful)
Most formulations include the possibility of mixtures of the types.

48. Choleric (short-tempered or irritable)
The choleric temperament is traditionally associated with fire. People with this temperament tend to be egocentric and extroverted. They may be excitable, impulsive, and restless, with reserves of aggression, energy, and/or passion, and try to instill that in others.
They tend to be task-oriented people and are focused on getting a job done efficiently; their motto is usually "do it now." They can be ambitious, strong-willed and like to be in charge. They can show leadership, are good at planning, and are often practical and solution-oriented. They appreciate receiving respect and esteem for their work.

49. Melancholic (analytical and quiet)
The melancholic temperament is traditionally associated with the element of earth. People with this temperament may appear serious, introverted, cautious or even suspicious. They may be focused and conscientious. They often prefer to do things themselves, both to meet their own standards and because they are not inherently sociable.

50. Phlegmatic temperament
The phlegmatic temperament is traditionally associated with water. People with this temperament may be inward and private, thoughtful, reasonable, calm, patient, caring, and tolerant. They tend to have a rich inner life, seek a quiet, peaceful atmosphere, and be content with themselves. They tend to be steadfast, consistent in their habits, and thus steady and faithful friends.

51. sanguine (optimistic and social)
The sanguine temperament is traditionally associated with air. People with this temperament tend to be lively, sociable, carefree, talkative, and pleasure-seeking. They may be warm-hearted and optimistic. They can make new friends easily, be imaginative and artistic, and often have many ideas. They can be flighty and changeable; thus sanguine personalities may struggle with following tasks all the way through and be chronically late or forgetful

52. Methods of Research
Research Method – a systematic plan for doing research
4 Common Methods:
Experiments
Surveys
Participant Observation
Secondary Data

53. How does Texas compare? It's not good.
Texas has either the second or third highest rate of food insecurity in the country at 18.5%. Arkansas and Mississippi are tied for first place with 19.2%. That's the latest data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
On a typical day in the 18 southeast Texas counties served by the Houston Food Bank, 66,200 people are hungry and can't afford to buy food. Of that number, 5,000 are children.
One in five households in the same area faces food insecurity. They live with the threat of being hungry, or having inconsistent access to enough nutritious food.
It's even worse for kids: one in four children is food insecure in southeast Texas.
In Texas, 6.5% of households experience hunger, or "very low food security."

54. Map the meal gap 2015
In the last year, the number of children who are at-risk of hunger1-in-4-kids-01.png increased by 18,630 in southeast Texas. While the overall food insecurity rate dropped very slightly in the 18 counties served by the Houston Food Bank, it got worse for kids. The percentage of food insecure children grew from last year’s 24.7% to 26%. That’s one in four southeast Texas children, a total of 448,490 kids who live in homes that don’t have consistent access to enough nutritious food.
Overall in southeast Texas, the food insecurity rate continues to hover around 18% when adults are factored in, down from 19% last year.
Map the Meal Gap 2015
In the last year, the number of children who are at-risk of hunger increased by 18,630 in southeast Texas.  While the overall food insecurity rate dropped very slightly in the 18 counties served by the Houston Food Bank, it got worse for kids.  The percentage of food insecure children grew from last year’s 24.7% to 26%.  That’s one in four southeast Texas children, a total of 448,490 kids who live in homes that don’t have consistent access to enough nutritious food.
Overall in southeast Texas, the food insecurity rate continues to hover around 18% when adults are factored in, down from 19% last year.
The numbers come from the U.S. Department of Agriculture through Feeding America’s annual Map the Meal Gap study, which looks at food insecurity rates on a county-by-county basis across America.

55. Experiments
Experiments – a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions
Explanatory (asks why)
Tests Hypotheses
Hypothesis - a statement of possible relationship between 2 or more variables; if-then statements
Ideal Experiment has 4 Steps:
Specify the IV and DV. (Conceptualization & Operationalization)
Measure the initial value of the DV. (Pre-Test)
Expose the DV to the IV. (Stimulus)
Measure the DV again. (Post-Test)
Sometimes use Experimental and Control Groups
Experimental: Receives IV
Control: Receives Nothing or Placebo

56. Survey Research
Survey – a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview
Descriptive; good for studying attitudes.
Population vs. Sample
Population - the people who are the focus of the research
Sample - the part of the population that represents the whole
Random vs. Non-Random
Random  All Subjects Have Equal Chance of Selection

57. Survey Research Two Types of Surveys:
Questionnaire – a series of written questions a researcher presents to subjects
Open-Ended vs. Close-Ended – Examples?
Administration – Self vs. Interviewer; Phone vs. Mail
Interviews - a series of questions a researcher administers in person to respondents
Rapport, Probing, Influence
Piloting – testing the survey on a small group before launching it fully; ensures that a survey is understandable

58. Examples of surveys National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being
National Survey on Drug Use and Health
National Survey Residential Care Facilites (NSRCF)
NC Governors Seat Belt Survey
Platforms for Integrating Longitudinal Exposure Surveys
PRAMS Field Test
Recovery Management Checkups for Women Offenders
Screening, Brief Intervention, Referral and Treatment
Sexually Active Men's Study

59. Other Research Methods
Participant Observation - a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities
AKA fieldwork, ethnography, case study
Exploratory & Descriptive
Entrée, Key Informant
Secondary Analysis - a research method in which a researcher uses data collected by others
Examples?
Census & GSS
Houston Area Survey

60. Street Corner Society

61. Participant observer research
In the late 1930s, on a fellowship from Harvard University,Whyte lived in the North End of Boston, which was mostly inhabited by first- and second- generation immigrants from Italy. Whyte, who came from a well-to-do family, considered the neighborhood a slum, and wanted to learn more about its "lower class" society.[2] Whyte lived in that district for three and a half years, including 18 months he spent with an Italian family. Through this work, Whyte became a pioneer in participant observation.

62. 10 Steps In Sociological Investigation
Select and define a topic.
What is your topic?
Review the literature.
What have others already learned?
Develop key questions to ask.
What, exactly, are your questions?
Assess requirements for study.
What will you need to carry out research?
Consider ethical issues.
Are there ethical concerns?

63. 10 Steps In Sociological Investigation
Select a research methodology.
What method will you use?
Collect the data.
How will you record the data?
Interpret the findings.
What do the data tell you?
State conclusions.
What are your conclusions?
Publish the findings.
How can you share what you have learned?

64. Conclusion
Sociology is simply a new way of knowing that can benefit you in many ways.
Studying sociology requires:
The Sociological Perspective
The Sociological Imagination
Sociologists build theory and gather evidence because sociology is a science.
There are three major theoretical paradigms in sociology:
Structural-Functional
Symbolic-Interaction
Social-Conflict

65. Conclusion “Common sense” about the social world is often inaccurate.
There are three major methods of sociological inquiry:
Scientific Sociology
Interpretive Sociology
Critical Sociology
There are four major methods of sociological investigation:
Experiments
Surveys
Participant Observation
Secondary Analysis
There are two ways to build theory: inductive & deductive.
However, sociology – like all sciences – involves several steps including interpretation and presentation which can “spin” reality.