1. Grammar
American Literature

2. Chapter 11 Sentence Completeness
Sentence Fragment: a group of words that does not express a complete thought.
Since it is part of a sentence it should not be allowed to stand by itself.
Examples:
Leaving her team at a time when we needed her.
Because his car was in the shop.
Which is why we don’t care.
And awkwardly ran around the corner.

3. Sentence Completeness
A complete sentence contains:
A subject
A verb
And a complete thought
A complete sentence doesn’t have to be long.
Sally waited.
John ran home.
Then we ate dinner.

4. The Phrase Fragment
Phrase: a group of words acting as a single part of a speech and not containing a verb and its subject.
Phrases are only part of a sentence and cannot stand alone.
Examples: What’s missing?
A story with deep thoughts and emotions.
A record of achievements beginning when you were first hired.
With the ultimate effect of advertising to sell products.

5. Subordinate Clause Fragment
Some phrases become fragments because they begin with a subordinate clause that has been separated from a complete sentence.
Subordinate clauses do three things:
They join two sentences together.
They make one sentence dependent on the other to form a complete thought.
They indicate a logical relationship.

6. Subordinating Conjunctions
Common Subordinating Conjunctions:
Since, because, so that (show cause and effect)
Although, even though, whereas, though, while (show comparison or contrast)
How, however, where, wherever (show place and manner)
If, whether, unless (show possibility and conditions)
That, which, who (show relations)
After, as, before, since, when, whenever, while, until (show time)

7. The Fixes:
Make sure sentences have a subject, a verb, express a complete, and don’t start with a subordinate conjunction.
Finding subordinate conjunctions are tricky, but remember they are dependent and can’t stand alone!
A complete sentence should answer the basic questions:
Who?
What?
*A more complex sentence tells you when, why, where, and/or how.

8. Run On Sentences
Run on: when a comma is used between two complete sentences.
Run ons are very common in writing and sometimes can be difficult to spot.
Examples:
He enjoys walking along the beach, he goes for picnics quite often.
My favorite type of pizza is buffalo chicken it is a little spicy.
They weren’t dangerous criminals they were detectives in disguise.

9. Run On Sentences
Run on sentences are easily fixed by separating the sentences or combining them with a conjunction or semi-colon.
The complete sentences themselves will help guide whether to separate the sentences or join them.
Sometimes separating the sentences causes the writing to be too choppy and awkward.
However, sometimes combining the sentences causes confusion and loss of coherence.

10. Coordinating Conjunctions
Here is a list of coordinating conjunctions:
For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS)
When using coordinating conjunctions you must use a comma.
Combine sentences using these conjunctions or subordinating conjunctions; otherwise, you may use a semi-colon or period to break the two sentences up.
Example:
Incorrect: I didn’t know which restaurant to choose I was too hungry to decide.
Correct: I didn’t know which restaurant to choose because I was too hungry to decide.
Correct: I didn’t know which restaurant to choose, and I was too hungry to decide.

11. Run On Sentences
It’s important to remember that run on sentences are easy to fix, but can be made worse by simply adding a comma.
Adding a comma without a coordinate creates a comma splice, which is another grammatical error.
Again, fix a run on by either breaking the two sentences up (using a period or semi-colon), or adding a conjunction (coordinate or subordinate).

12. Chapter 12 Coordination and Subordination
Some sentences are more complex and contain more than one idea. These ideas can be equal or unequal in rank.
Ideas that are equal in rank are called coordinate. These ideas are independent and can stand alone from one another.
Ideas that are unequal in rank are called subordinate. The subordinate clause is dependent and cannot stand alone.

13. Coordinate Clauses
Coordinate clauses are connected using connecting words (and, but, also, either, hence, etc.) that express different relationships.
The most common relationships expressed are addition, contrast, choice, and result.
For Example:
Mary ate lunch, and she went to the park. (addition)
Mary ate lunch, but she did not go to the park. (contrast)
Mary neither ate lunch, nor went to the park. (choice)
Mary ate lunch; consequently she went to the park. (result)

14. Coordinating Clauses
Great writers vary their sentences and choose connectives meticulously.
When you are writing be sure to choose the best connective that will express the relationship between clauses clearly.
For Example:
Unclear: Mary ate lunch, besides she went to the park.
Clear: Mary ate lunch, moreover she went to the park.
Clearer: Mary ate lunch, then she went to the park.

15. Subordinate Clauses Again, subordinate clauses cannot stand alone!
Subordinate clauses make a sentence more complex by adding information, but they can also create confusion if you’re not careful. Sometimes subordinate clauses cause information overload.
For Example:
Too Much: Jack, who was a great cook, started making a vegan dinner, because he was vegan, but was interrupted by Sally, who was his overly clingy girlfriend, calling on the phone.
Jack started making a vegan dinner, but was interrupted by Sally, who was his overly clingy girlfriend, calling on the phone.

16. Subordinating Adverb Clauses
Subordinate Adverb Clauses: subordinate clauses that act as adverbs. Meaning that the entire clause modifies either a verb, adjective, or adverb.
The clause will usually answer one of the following questions: How? Where? When? Why?
Common relationships shown between subordinating adverb clauses are time, cause or reason, purpose or result, and condition.
For Example:
They ran down the street because it was too cold.
Why did they run down the street?

17. Subordinate Adjective Clauses
Subordinate Adjective Clauses: a subordinate clause that acts as an adjective. Meaning the clause modifies a noun.
Subordinating Adjective Clauses will begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, that, or which) or a relative adverb (when, where, or why).
The clause will usually answer one of the following questions: How many? Which one? What kind?
For Example:
Aristotle, who is a Greek philosopher, wrote The Poetics, which is widely accepted in teaching fundamental performance art.

18. Faulty Coordination Correcting faulty coordination can be tricky.
Carefully read your sentences to decide if any ideas are of unequal rank.
Make an idea subordinate by rewriting it as a subordinate clause, modifying phrase, or appositive.

19. Chapter 13 Clear Reference
Antecedent: the word to which a pronoun refers to.
A pronoun must clearly refer to the right antecedent, otherwise you have created an unclear reference.
References can be ambiguous, general, or weak; none of these are good!
For Example:
Unclear: She told them to stop, but they didn’t listen.
Who told who to stop? Who is she? Who are they?
Clear: Susie told her brothers to stop, but they didn’t listen.

20. Ambiguous Reference
Ambiguous reference: occurs when a pronoun refers confusingly to two antecedents so that the reader does not know at once which antecedent is meant.
Basically there are two antecedents and the pronoun could be referring to either!
For Example:
Jackie asked Jenny to borrow her pen because she thought it was a lucky pen.
Did Jackie or Jenny think the pen was lucky?

21. General Reference
General Reference: occurs when a pronoun refers confusingly to a general idea that is only vaguely expressed.
For Example:
Unclear: While on vacation the family hiked, went to an amusement park, and raced go karts; It was a lot of fun!
What exactly was a lot of fun? The entire vacation or just one activity?
Clear: While on vacation the family, went to an amusement park, and raced go karts; These activities were a lot of fun!

22. Weak Reference
Weak Reference: occurs when the antecedent has not been expressed but exists only in the writer’s mind.
Basically when you get so wrapped up that you forget to tell the reader what you’re referring to.
The antecedent of a pronoun should be a noun. Sometimes antecedents are “hidden” in adverbs or modifiers.
For Example:
TJ was a superstitious person, one of these is not opening an umbrella inside the house.
One of what? The writer meant superstitions, but forgot to say it!