1. Categorization of risks and benefits (food additives)
Domina Petric, MD

2. Categories of risk
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

3. Roberts (1981) and Wodicka (1977) have categorized the major hazards associated with foods, including additives, into five groups, ranked in order of importance.
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

4. Categories of risk 2. Nutritional hazards
3. Environmental contaminant hazards
4. Foodborne hazards of natural origin
5. Food and color additive hazards
1. Foodborne hazards of microbial origin
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

5. Foodborne hazards of microbial origin
The most prevalent hazard associated with food is foodborne disease of microbial origin.
Microbial contamination can result from poor sanitary control during preparation and/or storage in the home, food service facility or food processing plant.
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

6. Foodborne hazards of microbial origin
The four primary factors that contribute to outbreaks of foodborne illness are:
holding food at the wrong temperature (includes inadequate cooling)
inadequate cooking
use of contaminated equipment in handling food
poor personal hygiene by the food handler
Marth, 1981
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

7. Foodborne hazards of microbial origin
Foodborne diseases of microbial origin are important in food safety because of their wide diversity.
These microbial illnesses can range in severity from the very severe (botulism) to milder illnesses such as staphylococcal food poisoning.
Foodborne hazards of microbial origin pose the greatest risk to infants, to the elderly and to debilitated persons.
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

8. Nutritional hazards
Adverse effects of nutritional hazards come from either deficiencies or excesses in nutrient intake.
The majority of nutritional hazards come from an improper balancing of the food intake in the diet.
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

9. Nutritional hazards
At the other end of the spectrum are the hazards associated with the consumption of excessive amounts of the fat-soluble vitamins and some of the trace elements.
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

10. Nutritional hazards
The fat-soluble vitamins (K, A, D, E) are stored in body fat.
Excessive intake of these vitamins, especially vitamins A and D, might result in accumulation with toxic side effects.
Excess amounts of the water-soluble vitamins (C and the B vitamins) are usually excreted in urine and sweat, but mild cases of toxicity are occasionally reported.
Stults, 1981
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

11. Nutritional hazards
The degree of toxicity of the trace elements is greatly affected by their interactions with one another.
Toxic amounts of iron can interfere with the absorption and utilization of copper, zinc and manganese.
Excessive amounts of manganese can interfere with the absorption of vitamin B12.
Davies, 1978
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

12. Nutritional hazards
Dietary intakes of cholesterol and saturated fats may contribute to the development of coronary heart disease.
Dietary intake of fat, calories and fiber may have some role in the likelihood of development of cancer.
Sodium intake may be an important factor in the development of hypertension, which plays a role in both stroke and heart disease.
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

13. Environmental contaminants
Environmental contaminants can find their way into the food supply by the release of industrial chemicals or from natural sources.
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

14. Environmental contaminants
These contaminants often persist in the environment and resist degradation.
Environmental chemicals tend to have a slow rate of metabolism and elimination, which could result in their accumulation in certain body tissues.
Certain environmental contaminants can accumulate in the food supply: mercury in swordfish and shark, neurotoxins in shellfish.
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

15. Environmental contaminants
Some of the environmental contaminants that pose a hazard to the food supply are:
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
dioxins
mercury
lead
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

16. Environmental contaminants
Contaminants from natural sources usually come from the erosion of rock formations or from soils with naturally high levels of certain substances.
The major contaminants of natural origin are mercury, arsenic, selenium, cadmium and tin.
Pesticides and drug residues in food-producing animals are also included in this category.
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

17. Naturally occurring toxicants
Some of the more common naturally occurring toxicants found in foods are:
oxalates in spinach
glycoalkaloids in potatoes
mercury in swordfish
mushroom toxins
mycotoxins
marine toxins
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

18. Naturally occurring toxicants
Certain other compounds like biologically active amines and nitrosamines that can be produced during food storage, processing or preparation can also pose a food hazard.
The effects of human exposure to natural toxins are difficult to study because consumption of naturally occurring toxins is variable and often cannot be determined.
Excessive natural toxin consumption generally results in long-term or chronic illness whose source can be difficult to trace.
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

19. Food additives
Any potential hazard to humans from a certain food additive depends on the toxicity of the food additive and the level at which the additive is ingested.
The four most widely used direct food additives are sucrose, salt, corn syrup and dextrose.
Human exposure to indirect additives is difficult to measure, but this exposure is minimal.
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

20. Categories of benefits
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

21. Categories of benefits
1. Health benefits that reduce some health risk or provide some health benefits such as improved nutrition.
2. Supply benefits relating to abundance, diversity and economic availability.
3. Hedonic benefits that provide sensory satisfaction.
4. Benefits that lead to increased convenience.
Darby, 1980
Food Safety Council, 1980
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.

22. References
Sumner SS, Eifert JD. Risks and Benefits of Food Additives. In: Branen AL et al. Food Additives. Marcel Dekker;2002.p:27-42.