1. TEACHING METHODOLOGY
Author: dr Dijana Vučković, assistant professor, University of Montenegro

2. Teaching and learning in higher education
Two main activities: teaching and learning.
What is personal engagement in these activities: a) for teacher and b) for student?
Could you, please, give your answers to this questions: What are your theories of teaching and learning?
Teaching is...
Learning is...
What is the connection between teaching and learning? Or: How are these activities connected?

3. Five big chalenges
The increasing numbers of students in some classrooms.
The diversity of background, experience, needs and expectations of our students.
The emerging curriculum of transferability which includes acquiring "new" competencies (learning to learn, communication skills, team work etc.).
New tehnologies in teaching and learning, e-learning options, distance learning etc.
The conceptual shift in our thinking about our practice from teaching to learning, from delivering knowledge to fostering independence of learning.
(Light, Cox, Calkins, 2009)

4. Blob tree – describe "your" blob (figure) and your student’s blob

5. Conceptions of teaching
Transmission – teacher-focused, student is usually passive, and teacher doesn’t think about learning process.
Acquisition – student-focused, student is highly active during classes/courses and teacher is oriented towards student’s learning.
Engagement – learning-focused, both subjects are highly involved in construction of quality teaching standards and learning outcomes (LOs).

6. Teaching paradigm
The most acceptable theory of learning that needs to be applied in our teaching practice is Social Constructivism.
It is not just single theory, it’s rather the logical mix of theoretical frameworks that can be found in the works by: Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, John Dewey, Jerom Bruner etc.

7. Key elements of Social Constructivism
Learning is an independent construction of knowledge, it occurs in the social interaction between teachers and students, and students among themselves. Interaction and cooperation are key to the learning process.
Knowledge can not be "given" and we can not "transmit" it! The task of the teaching process is to create incentive situations in which students, with their own thoughtfulness, try to build their personal knowledge system.
It is necessary to achieve a cognitively conflicted environment in the teaching process, i.e. ask and solve problem situations, problematic exposing, point to contradictions in theories and practices, give students tasks for independent work, etc.

8. The Consequences of Social Constructivism
It's not enough to teach, even if we're excellent lecturers. The big question is how much of our teaching is understood and remembered.
Students, during classes, need time to reflect on the lecture, discussion and questions. (Discussion time!)
It is good, at least occasionally, to organize work in pairs or small groups of students. We can prepare the same or different tasks, it is important to encourage them to work, investigate the problem and participate in solving it. (Problem-based Learning - PBL, Project-based Learning - Project-Method, Research-based Learning - RBL).

9. ...
Under such conditions, students interact with peers. A peer can explain any ambiguity better than a teacher. This is not because he "knows better" than the teacher, but because he is "closer" to another student (Peer Learning).
Cooperative teaching involves co-operation, teamwork, joint (in pairs or small groups) task development, a continuous exercise of "good" communication. Through discussion, ideas are developed, tested, students are "forced" to participate (Cooperative Learning).

10. Task for small groups work
Compare traditional, lecturing ex-cathedra teaching with contemporary university teaching. Use the Venus diagram.

11. Four stages of the teaching process
Planning - making and design of the curriculum.
Preparation - creating the concept of the class (the class procedure, structure, activities of students and teachers, problem questions for students ...), selection and preparation of teaching materials (e.g. presentations, tasks for independent work, problem solving tasks, copying text for analysis , preparing examples for presentation, electronic or some other material, etc.).
Realization - direct teaching (lectures and exercises, laboratory), consultative work, mentoring, etc.
Evaluation - through colloquiums, homework, seminar and other papers, final exams (evaluation of teaching results), student evaluations of the teaching process.

12. Designing curriculum
The need for continuous (re) designing of university curricula. Why?
In the last years there have been three basic types of university curriculum.
The key ratio in the curriculum design (the one that shapes the curriculum) is the relation of the objective, the outcome and the content of the curriculum.
The objective is what the teacher wants / intends to achieve during the teaching process.
The outcome is what the student attains in the class.
Content is a teaching material that is being taught.
What is the relation between these three elements in your teaching? (Discussion in pairs, then joint one).

13. The first curriculum type
University programs (mainly before the Bologna Declaration) were focused on learning CONTENT. They contain a list of content, i.e. themes and teaching units, and that was the central part.
The objective was written, but it was general, “distant" and non-operational, i.e. it was not precisely known what was the plan for one class or series of classes in order to achieve the objective.
In these programs, the teaching / learning outcomes are not mentioned. Other elements, such as methods, activities, etc. they are not mentioned.
Since the CONTENT was dominant, the teacher had a clear task - lecturing the content.

14. Second curriculum type
Since the introduction of the Bologna Declaration (at least at WBC universities), teaching objectives have become dominant in making the curriculum.
Outcomes are still not mentioned, but the content (list of lecture topics) remains an important part of the curriculum.
These objectives are more specific than those in the previous programs, the curriculum authors should start from them when choosing the contents of the teaching, learning activities, tasks for independent work, methods of teaching / learning, forms of knowledge testing, etc.

15. The problem of comparability
The third type of curriculum has been developing in recent years. The reason for its occurrence is the necessity of the COMPARABILITY of different degrees, i.e. diplomas from different countries and from different universities.
The task for discussion in small groups
What can be compared with the holders of a degree if diplomas come from different higher education institutions? Or, which factors should "judge" when choosing the right person for a job? Please specify at least five elements.

16. The third curriculum type
The third type of curriculum has been developing in recent years. The focus of this type is the OUTCOMS OF LEARNING. We continue to write learning objectives and learning content, but the outcome - understood as student achievement - should be the basic element.
This type of curriculum is based on the answer to two questions:
"Who is learning?" and
"What is the main reason for learning?"

17. Questions
Who is learning? - The curriculum can not be viewed independently of those who need to complete a study program.
If we get students who have previously completed high-quality secondary schools, we can have "stronger" standards and requirements.
If this is not the case, the curriculum must offer a solution (supplementary classes, elective classes, additional consultations ...).
Also, the gifted individuals should have support.
In any case, it is a bad variation that the curriculum does not recognize the need to adapt the teaching to different students

18. `What is the main reason for learning?`
Each element of the curriculum - above all, the list of subjects, with a fund of classes and ECTS credits (curriculum) - must be directed towards questions:
WHAT IS THE OCCUPATION OF THE PERSON WHO IS LEARNING THIS?
FOR WHAT PURPOSE DOES HE/SHE NEED THIS SUBJECT?
WAS THIS SUBJECT FROM THE GROUP OF GENERAL ACADEMIC SKILLS, SUBJECT FIELDS, ACADEMIC?
Clear answers to these questions will avoid any burdens of students with those subjects that are not particularly important for their profession. A teacher can participate in making a curriculum that is not his subject field. Then he must pay attention on a different perspective, the one for which the curriculum is being prepared

19. Basic curriculum elements
Learning outcomes,
Teaching goals,
Conditioned by other subjects etc.,
Teaching contents,
Duties and activities of students,
Teaching and learning methods,
Literature,
Student workload and credit value (ECTS)
Forms of knowledge assessment and assessment method.
Kojim redom kreiramo kuriku

20. Definitions of LOs
Learning outcomes are statements of what is expected that the student will be able to do as a result of learning the activity. (Jenkins and Unwin, 2001)
Learning outcomes are statements that specify what learners will know or be able to do as a result of a learning activity. Outcomes are usually expressed as knowledge, skills or attitudes. (American Association of Law Libraries)
Learning outcomes are explicit statements of what we want our students to know, understand or be able to do as a result of completing our courses. (University of New South Wales).

21. Elements for defining learning outcome
Knowledge is a system of facts and generalizations that an individual has deliberately adopted and permanently kept. Knowledge will be better in a situation where an individual has the NEED for it.
Skills are automated or highly advanced skills to perform some actions and procedures. Permanently developed skills, which an individual have a need for, we call habits.
Attitudes are mainly viewed as elements in which the value system is built. They describe the relationships of a person towards something: knowledge, learning, profession, colleagues ... They can be positive and negative. A common example of negative attitudes is stereotypes and prejudices.

22. ...
Competencies include a system of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values ... and relate to expertise in a particular field.
We divide them on: general and professional.
A common definition: Competences represent a dynamic combination of knowledge and its application, attitudes and responsibilities that describe the learning outcomes of an education program.
Which of these elements (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values, competences) is the most important in our teaching? Why?

23. Defining learning outcomes (LOs) – THE DUBLIN DESCRIPTORS

24. The Dublin Descriptors (DDs) – analysis
Carefully review the previous scheme.
Competencies are divided into professional and general. What "degrees" in DDs are related to the professional, and which of the general competencies?
Compare DDs:
A) according to study cycles (bachelor, master, doctoral) – vertically, and
B) according to the elements for one cycle (horizontal), for bachelor, master and doctoral studies.

25. Domains of LOs
Cognitive - knowledge of a various degree of complexity, from facts to theories, and knowledge at a different degree of usability - from the simple reproduction, to synthesis and evaluation.
Affective - emotions, attitudes, values, willing elements.
Psychomotor - learning specific actions or procedures that require the coordination of psychic and motor activity (e.g. in surgery, statuary, sports, music, engineering, etc.).

26. Instruments for defining LOs
Taxonomies are hierarchically arranged scales of teaching goals or learning outcomes.
Hierarchical arrangement implies that each subsequent level includes the previous one.
Each subsequent level is dependent upon the learner's ability to perform at the level preceding it. A student, for example, can not be found on the fourth level of the taxonomy if he has not mastered the elements of the three previous levels.

27. Cognitive domain
Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy (1956).

28. Cognitive domain – Bloom’s taxonomy with active verbs
Taksonomija za kognitivnu oblast sa tzv. glagolima akcije (Bloom, 1956).

29. Cognitive domain
The basic version of taxonomy originate from Benjamin Bloom and associates.
Six levels are distinguished: knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
The version we previously presented comes from Bloom's associates David Krathwohl and Lorin Anderson. They replaced the places of evaluation and synthesis, with the synthesis in their version being given a new name – creation.
Both versions (Bloom's and Revised) are valid and can be used.

30. Structure of knowledge according to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001)
understanding
application
analysis
evaluation
creation
factual
conceptual
procedural
metacognitive

31. Task (small groups)
Write the outcomes of a cognitive domain for one university subject. Try to write at least one outcome for each level of taxonomy.
The output line should be hierarchically done - the next one relies on the previous one and is the basis for further progression.
Note: Higher Order Thinking include the last three taxonomic levels.

32. Affective domain (Bloom, Krathwohl, Masia, 1964)

33. What does this field contain?
Affective domain contains feelings, attitudes, interests, values.
The key principle of this domain is internalization, which includes the complete adoption of value orientation so that it becomes an integral part of the personality.
Discussion questions: Which area is more complex for writing learning outcomes (cognitive or affective)? Explain.
Is it needed to include affective domain in university teaching?

34. Psychomotor domain(Dave, 1979)

35. Description
The psychomotor domain primarily emphasizes the skills that involve the coordination of brain and muscle activity.
Psychomotor domain is mostly used in areas such as laboratory research, health, art, music, engineering, acting and physical education.

36. Some rules for writing LOs
Written learning outcomes will determine teaching methods, techniques and strategies of learning and teaching, as well as forms of assessment of students’ achievements.
Outcomes should be written clearly so as to be understood by all interested parties (students, teachers, associates, employers, and external evaluators).
Since learning outcomes ought to be measurable (verifiable), during the process of their definition one must think about forms of verification of their realisability.

37. ...
The number of learning outcomes should not be too high. The existing literature does not exhibit a complete agreement as to the acceptable number of outcomes, but the variations in proposed numbers are not too great either. Most frequent suggestions refer to the number of 4-8 outcomes, 5–10, 6.
The introduction of learning outcomes should begin with the following words: Upon the completion of this course (modul, subject, study programme…), the student will show the ability to… What follows is the list of learning outcomes which starts with active verbs.

38. ...
It is necessary to avoid imprecise verbs, such as: know, understand, learn, become acquainted with, be aware. The above mentioned verbs are imprecise because the semantic field of each one of them is too wide and can lead to different interpretations.
The verbs of action are not strictly defined in such a way as to have one verb belonging to only one level. The use of verbs is, therefore, thought out in the context of their related levels.
When writing learning outcomes for a certain level (a time or organisational teaching unit), it is advisable to take into account whether and how they match other levels. For example, when writing outcomes for a course level, it is important to bear in mind total outcomes for the entire study programme.

39. ...
Outcomes for the study programme level are not to be deduced by a simple enumeration of individual courses (subjects). Outcomes at the level of such an overarching entity are formed by a complex synthesis of individual outcomes.
Teaching practice focused solely on the cognitive domain is not sufficiently complied with contemporary theories and practice.
Because the number of outcomes is limited, it is important to include in university education an increased number of outcomes from higher taxonomical levels and a reduced number of outcomes for lower levels.

40. The other elements of curriculum
Teaching aims – we write them from the teacher’s angle, what do we want to achieve.
Teaching objectives – we write them from the teacher's point of view describing intentions, i.e. what we want to achieve.
With outcomes as a key word we use ‘action’ verb, and for writing aims we use gerund, e.g. describing, explaining, acquiring, projecting, planning, operating, etc.

41. Elements
Teaching content is mainly written as a list of themes, i.e. lecture units.
They can also be listed as a catalogue of key concepts that students should master.
Each teaching content / theme should be related to learning outcomes.
When writing content in the curriculum, it is important to take into account that one teaching subject cannot cover the whole scientific field, i.e. we must carefully choose the essence and what can be realistically achieved in teaching process.

42. Outcome vs content
Curriculum often has too much content, i.e. there is a discrepancy between the scope of the course (ECTS and number of classes) and themes. Discuss in small groups.
In practice, it is happening that extensive or complex teaching content (lecture themes) is at the center of attention, so the teacher does not think enough about how students learn, how much and how do they understand, whether they can follow the lecture, etc.
This is a serious problem because it happens that student cannot follow whole series of lectures, because the previous material is not clear or understandable to him.
How to solve this problem?

43. Further elements of curriculum
The obligations and activities of students should be directly related to the learning outcomes.
It is important to prepare diverse activities - this is a psychologically powerful motivator of the learning process. It's not good that students just - write, draw, read, solve tasks ...
Besides, it is important to combine the organization of work (form of work), so that they sometimes work individually, sometimes in pairs, in a small or larger group, etc.
These factors positively affect the communication and teamwork skills, students explain to each other parts of the content which is not clear or understandable, etc.

44. ...
We plan teaching and learning methods in relation to the previous elements.
Teaching methods are teaching modes. Since teacher and students are involved in teaching process, each method has a double meaning, i.e. it refers to the ways of work of teachers and students.
The literature includes methods of: dialogue, monologue, demonstration, illustration, work on text, experimental, laboratory, etc.
The dominant method in traditional teaching is lecturer, i.e. monologic. In addition to the fact that some content has to be taught through lectures, other methods must also be used.

45. Example
Connection between levels of achievement and teaching methods (Lončar-Vicković, S; Dolaček-Alduk, Z. 2009)
Levels of achievement
Teaching methods
Memorising of factual knowledge
Lectures, suggestions for student’s individual studying of literature, team studying, work on a text, e-learning, research papers
Understanding of factual knowledge
Search and analysis of examples, organisation of group discussions, comparison of concepts and theory, discussions (search for arguments)
Application
Make a programme, do a project, solve a problem, present, recognise devices, case study, compose a task, make a sculpture, construct according to instructions
Analysis
Discussions, analysis, case study, essays, research papers
Evaluation
State advantages and disadvantages, write a review (research, methods, theories)
Creation (synthesis)
Assessment/verification (research) of concepts and theories

46. Further elements of curriculum
Students’ load and credit value – ECTS.
Student's load on the subject begins with the given ECTS.
The ECTS recognizes the importance of a subject for a profession and accurately determines how much time a student needs to achieve all outcomes.
The ratio of lectures, practical classes and time to individual work is different, but it should be anticipated that time is sufficient enough for the student to achieve maximum outcomes.

47. Disscusion
Choose several curriculums (2–3) for subjects that are taught at your university and analyze them according to the following:
A) Are ECTS in coordination with the importance of the subject for the field of work?
B) Does the number of classes (ratio of lectures and practical classes) and time for individual student’s work allow to achieve all outcomes?
C) Assess (in relation with outcomes and content) time supposed for individual work. Is that enough?

48. Elements of curriculum
Ways of evaluation and assessment.
By the ways of evaluation and assessment we meashure to which extent the outcome is achieved.
The assessmebt may be continuous (e.g. colloquims, homeworks, practical works) or final (final exams).
It may be in oral or written form, or practical check (e.g. playing the instrument, athletics, implementing the class, developing program, etc.). Choice depends on the outcome.
Whenever possible, it is important to combine different ways of assessment.

49. Ways of assessment of achievability of learning outcomes
Example
Levels of achievement
Ways of assessment of achievability of learning outcomes
Memorising of factual knowledge
Essays, written exams, oral exams
Understanding of factual knowledge
Essays, research papers, written exams, oral exams
Application
Tasks, presentations, written reports, essays
Analysis
Discussions, essays, research papers
Evaluation
Synthesis (creation)
Tasks, essays, research papers, final paper, graduation degree paper

50. Implementation of teaching practice
By implementation of teaching practice we consider direct work of teachers and students during lectures and practice classes.
Most of the elements for implementation is already written in curriculum. In this phase we IMPLEMENT curriculum.
The ratio between lectures and practice classes should allow that parts of lectures are additionally developed, discussed, applied, etc. Mostly, practice classes should follow up lectures, those should not be two separate parts of teaching.

51. Working with larger groups of students
Lectures are mostly implemented with larger groups of students.
Number of students in group much too often influence teaching in advance – which should not be the case. Well planned teaching should always assume conditions for implementation. One of the conditions is optimal number of students.
Optimal number of students is different from subject to subject, from field to field, but practice shows that groups with more than 30–40 students may be considered as large groups.

52. Frontal work
Frontal (collective) work: work with large groups of students, usually used in traditional teaching for the delivery of lectures.
It has numerous advantages, the most important being enabling systematicity of teachers’ presentation and its economical use of time, as the teacher works simultaneously with all students.
However, this form of work also has many disadvantages:
it does not allow for significant students’ activities during the class;
the teacher addresses an imaginary (average) student;
teaching is focused on the teaching content and the teacher;
a large number of students frequently does not understand parts of lectures;
communication in this type of teaching enables only minimal interaction.

53. Small groups work
Group work: work with groups of students, usually from 4-6 goup members.
It is suitable for the finalisation of projects, for making of research plans or experiment drafts, for learning by solving problems, for certain types of homework etc.
It is much more difficult for the teacher to organise this type of work, because all groups cannot be directly under the teacher’s control at all times.

54. ...
However, with good previous preparation and well-planned indirect guidance of groups, this type of work potentially activates students’ work and causes them to get fully involved in the teaching process.
Interaction among group members contributes to the development of communicational skills of students, enables them for team work, and has a positive impact on their cognitive processes.

55. Individual work
Individual work with students: during this type of work, each student works alone, autonomously, with indirect teacher’s guidance.
This type of work is suitable for achievement of numerous learning outcomes in university education, because every graduate is expected to be enabled to carry out autonomously certain tasks.
Individual work is practised for essay writing and research papers, other types of homework, but also in all those situations, which are deemed to be conducive to the autonomous work carried out by each student.

56. Work in pairs
This type of work is transitory between the group and individual type of work.
Students sometimes find it easier to work in this way (timewise and organisation-wise, but also and frequently communication-wise): it may be also more comfortable for the teacher to organise work in pairs, rather than individual work.
Some of the advantages of group work (interaction, communication, responsibilities etc.) are also found in work in pairs.

57. Learning strategies
The strategy of learning implies the student’s way of learning, i.e. the approach to instructional content with the aim of its appropriation.
Along with external factors of the organisation of successful learning, such as: habits of the place and time, prevention of retroactive and proactive inhibition, making of classic notes, distinguishing of key ideas etc. the strategies of learning also imply the ways in which students organise the content during the learning process in order to reach the goal of its appropriate long-term memorising and use.

58. ...
These are, for example, KWL list, FIPN (PZPN) and other similar tables, concept maps, mind maps, Venn diagrams, diagram and fish bone diagrams, and other knowledge organisers.

59. Examples
KWL list implies the learning process following through three elements: know, want to know and learn.
Before beginning to learn a specific topic, the student draws a table with three columns.
In the first column she/he writes the topic-related key notions he/she already knows, in the second questions, dilemmas, inaccuracies, topic-related interests.
After this, follows the process of reading (learning) of the new content, and then the third column filling.

60. ...
Conept and mind maps are a graphic display of linear verbal content in the ramified form.
At the centre of a graphic organisation is a topic, while branches contain sub-topics. This form of presentation help separate the importannt from the unimportant.
Venn diagrams are usually used for the display of mathematical sets. The purpose of such display lies in its presentation of the relation between two or more phenomena or categories, which have some common, but also some different charactestics.

61. Teaching tehniques
Teaching technique implies creation of stimulating teaching situations in which students will be activated and motivated to participate in the learning process.
Thus, there are techniques of motivational type: brainstorming, associations etc.
Among techniques of organising of learning, particularly important are: puzzle, angles, workshops, stations.

62. Evaluation of teaching
Evaluation of teaching is done by everyone involved in the teaching process, from their own point of view. Part of the evaluation of teaching are also all ways of students’ assessment. The results of an exam show quality of teaching and learning. "Bad" results at the exam imply that learning was not satisfactory.

63. Why are the exam results sometimes bad?
Small groups:
Name at least five reasons why the exam results may be bad.

64. Some of the reasons Students did not study enough.
Teaching process was not good enough.
Students do not have sufficient pre-knowledge.
Subject is too demanding.
Teacher did not point out the key parts of the content.
In every case, for whichever reason, it is necessary to react.

65. Assessment criteria
There are two basic assessment criteria: prior and statistical.
Prior criteria is based on setting up the number of points necessary to pass an exam in advance. Prior criteria is visible at scaling the test – each task has certain number of points and it is known in advance how many points are needed for which grade.

66. Statistical criteria
Statistical criteria is based on Gauss’s curve of normal distribution. The picture shows how we use this curve in assessment.

67. Students’ evaluation of teaching process
Quality assessment of teaching process is done by students as well.
Name pro et contra attitudes of students’ evaluation. Name 5 statements which support students’ evaluation and 5 which emphasize the cons of that kind of evaluation.
For each evaluation it is important to think about: WHAT IS ITS PURPOSE? How to use the results of students’ evaluation of teaching process?

68. Literature
Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001), A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: a Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy, Longman Publishing, New York.
Bakovljev, M. (1998), Didaktika, Naučna knjiga, Beograd.
Blum, B. S. (1981), Taksonomija ili klasifikacija obrazovnih i odgojnih ciljeva, knjiga I – kognitivno područje, Republički zavod za unapređivanje vaspitanja i obrazovanja, Beograd.
Krathwohl, D. R. (2002), A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy: An Overview, THEORY INTO PRACTICE, Vol. 41, No 4, Autumn 2002, pp. 212–218.
Light, G., Cox, R., & Calkins, S. (2009). Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Sage, London.

69. Literature
Kennedy, D. (2007), Pisanje i upotreba ishoda učenja – Praktični vodič, Savet Evrope, Kancelarija u Beogradu, Beograd.
Lončar-Vicković, S., Dolaček-Alduk, Z. (2009), Ishodi učenja- priručnik za sveučilišne nastavnike, Gradska i sveučilišna knjižnica, Osijek.
Vučković, D. (2011), Nove nastavne metode u kontekstu tradicionalne pedagoške terminologije, Vaspitanje i obrazovanje, br. 4, str. 81–96.
Vučković, D., Žugić, D., & Stešević, I. (2015). Guidelines for LOs at Higher Education Institutions in Montenegro. Product of TEMPUS DEVCORE project.
Vukasović, M. (2006), Razvoj kurikuluma u visokom obrazovanju, Dosije, Beograd.

70. Web Sources http://www.aallnet.org/prodev/outcomes.asp

71. Thank you for your attention.