1. Chapter 16 Motivation Theory and Practice
John R. Schermerhorn, Jr.
Daniel G. Bachrach
Introduction to Management
13th edition
Chapter 16 Motivation Theory and Practice

2. Planning Ahead —Key Takeaways
Explain theories of how individual needs motivate behavior.
Identify the influences of expectancy, equity, goal-setting, and self- efficacy processes on motivation.
Discuss the roles reinforcement principles and strategies play in motivation.
Explain how job designs and alternative work schedules influence motivation.
Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3. Chapter 16 Outline Individual Needs and Motivation
Hierarchy of needs theory
ERG theory
Two-factor theory
Acquired needs theory
Process Theories of Motivation
Equity theory
Expectancy theory
Goal-setting theory
Self-efficacy theory
Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

4. Chapter 16 Outline Reinforcement Theory Motivation and Job Design
Reinforcement strategies
Positive reinforcement
Punishment
Motivation and Job Design
Job simplification
Job enrichment
Alternative work schedules
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5. Individual Needs and Motivation
Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work
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6. Individual Needs and Motivation
Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual
Explain workplace behavior and attitudes
Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior
Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction
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7. Individual Needs and Motivation
Hierarchy of needs theory
Developed by Abraham Maslow
Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes
Lower-order needs:
Physiological, safety, and social needs
Desires for physical and social well being
Higher-order needs:
Esteem and self-actualization needs
Desire for psychological growth and development
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8. Figure 16.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs
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9. Individual Needs and Motivation
Hierarchy of needs theory
Deficit principle
A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior
Progression principle
A need at one level does not become activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied
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10. Individual Needs and Motivation
ERG theory
Developed by Clayton Alderfer
Three need levels
Existence needs
desires for physiological and material well-being
Relatedness needs
desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships
Growth needs
desires for continued psychological growth and development
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11. Individual Needs and Motivation
ERG theory
Any/all needs can influence behavior at one time
Frustration-regression principle
An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated
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12. Individual Needs and Motivation
Two-factor theory
Developed by Frederick Herzberg
Hygiene factors:
Elements of the job context
Sources of job dissatisfaction
Satisfier factors:
Elements of the job content
Sources of job satisfaction and motivation
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13. Figure 16.2 Elements in Herzberg’s two-factor theory
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14. Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory
Developed by David McClelland
People acquire needs through their life experiences
Needs that are acquired:
Need for Achievement (nAch)
Need for Power (nPower)
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

15. Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory
Need for Achievement (nAch)
Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks
People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
Involves individual responsibility for results
Involves achievable but challenging goals
Provides feedback on performance
Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

16. Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory
Need for Power (nPower)
Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people
Personal power versus social power
People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
Involves control over other persons
Has an impact on people and events
Brings public recognition and attention
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17. Individual Needs and Motivation
Acquired needs theory
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons
People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
Involves interpersonal relationships
Provides for companionship
Brings social approval
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18. Process Theories of Motivation
How people make choices to work hard or not
Choices are based on:
Individual preferences
Available rewards
Possible work outcomes
Types of process theories:
Equity theory
Expectancy theory
Goal-setting theory
Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

19. Process Theories of Motivation
Equity theory
Developed by J. Stacy Adams
When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation
Perceived inequity
Perceived equity
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20. Figure 16.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison
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21. Process Theories of Motivation
Equity and social comparison
People compare their ratio of outcomes-to-inputs to the outcomes-to-inputs ratio of another (a referent)
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22. Process Theories of Motivation
Over-reward inequity (positive inequity) occurs when an individual perceives that rewards received are more than what is fair for work inputs
Under-reward inequity (negative inequity) occurs when an individual perceives that rewards received are less than what is fair for work inputs
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23. Process Theories of Motivation
Equity theory
People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing:
Work inputs
Rewards received
Referent’s inputs or outcomes
Comparison points
Situation
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24. Process Theories of Motivation
Managerial implications of equity theory—
Underpaid people experience anger
Overpaid people experience guilt
Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes
Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated
Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace
Gender equity
Comparable worth
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25. Process Theories of Motivation
Expectancy theory
Developed by Victor Vroom
Key expectancy theory variables:
Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance
Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards
Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes
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26. Figure 16.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation
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27. Process Theories of Motivation
Expectancy theory
Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:
Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low
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28. Process Theories of Motivation
Managerial implications of expectancy theory
To maximize expectancy, managers should:
Select workers with ability
Train workers to use ability
Support work efforts
Clarify performance goals
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29. Process Theories of Motivation
Managerial implications of expectancy theory
To maximize instrumentality, managers should:
Clarify psychological contracts
Communicate performance-outcome possibilities
Identify rewards that are contingent on performance
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30. Process Theories of Motivation
Managerial implications of expectancy theory
To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should:
Use content theories
Increase communication
Link needs/desires with rewards
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31. Process Theories of Motivation
Goal-setting theory
Developed by Edwin Locke
Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating
Motivational effects of task goals:
Provide direction to people in their work
Clarify performance expectations
Establish a frame of reference for feedback
Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management
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32. Process Theories of Motivation
Set specific goals
Set challenging goals
Build goal acceptance and commitment
Clarify goal priorities
Provide feedback on goal accomplishment
Reward goal accomplishment
How to Make Goal Setting Work for You:
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33. Process Theories of Motivation
Goal-setting theory
Participation in goal setting
unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting
management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation
when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist
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34. Process Theories of Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory
a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task
Capability directly affects motivation
higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy
self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting
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35. Process Theories of Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory
Enactive mastery
person gains confidence through positive experience
Vicarious modeling
learning by observing others
Verbal persuasion
encouragement from others that one can perform a task
Emotional arousal
high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation
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36. Reinforcement Theory Fundamentals of reinforcement theory
Focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior
Law of effect — behavior followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated: behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is not
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37. Reinforcement Theory Operant conditioning: Developed by B.F. Skinner
Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences
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38. Reinforcement Theory Operant conditioning strategies:
Positive reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence
Negative reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence
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39. Reinforcement Theory Operant conditioning strategies: Punishment
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence
Extinction
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence
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40. Reinforcement Theory
Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on
Law of contingent reinforcement —
Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited
Law of immediate reinforcement —
More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has
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41. Reinforcement Theory Clearly identify desired work behaviors
Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards
Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards
Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards
Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement
Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:
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42. Reinforcement Theory Schedules of reinforcement:
Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs
Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically
Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous reinforcement
Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more permanent
Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it
Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

43. Reinforcement Theory Guidelines for using punishment:
Tell the person what is being done wrong
Tell the person what is being done right
Match the punishment to the behavior
Administer punishment in private
Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement
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44. Figure 16.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management
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45. Motivation and Job Design
The process of arranging work tasks for individuals and groups
Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result
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46. Motivation and Job Design
Job simplification
Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks
Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth
Automation
Total mechanization of a job
Most extreme form of job simplification
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47. Motivation and Job Design
Potential advantages of job simplification:
Easier and quicker training of workers
Workers are less difficult to supervise
Workers are easier to replace
Development of expertise in doing repetitive tasks
Potential disadvantages of job simplification:
Productivity suffers
Cost increases due to absenteeism/ turnover of unhappy workers
Poor performance may result from worker boredom/ alienation
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48. Motivation and Job Design
Job rotation and job enlargement:
Expands job scope
Job rotation
Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments
Job enlargement
Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers
Horizontal loading
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49. Motivation and Job Design
Job enrichment
Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content
Increases job depth by adding work planning duties normally performed by a supervisor
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50. Motivation and Job Design
Focuses attention on the extent to which five core job characteristics are present in a job:
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
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51. Figure 16.6 Job design essentials using the job characteristics model
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52. Motivation and Job Design
How to improve core job characteristics:
Form natural units of work
Combine tasks
Establish client relationships
Open feedback channels
Practice vertical loading
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53. Motivation and Job Design
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54. Motivation and Job Design
Alternative Work Schedules: Flexible working hours
Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours
Core time — all employees must be at work
Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities
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55. Motivation and Job Design
Potential benefits of flexible working hours:
People have greater autonomy in work scheduling while ensuring maintenance of work responsibilities
Organizations can attract and retain employees who have special non-work responsibilities
Worker morale may be improved
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56. Motivation and Job Design
Alternative Work Schedules: Compressed workweek
Allows a full-time job to be completed in less than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts
Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially improved performance
Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family adjustment problems, increased scheduling problems
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57. Motivation and Job Design
Alternative Work Schedules: Job sharing
One full-time job is split between two or more persons
Potential advantages of job sharing: organizations benefit by employing talented people who are unable/unwilling to commit full-time
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58. Motivation and Job Design
Alternative Work Schedules: Telecommuting
A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office
Hoteling
Virtual offices
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59. Motivation and Job Design
Potential advantages of telecommuting:
Freedom from
Constraints of commuting
Fixed hours
Special work attire
Direct contact with supervisors
Increased productivity
Fewer distractions
Being one’s own boss
Having more personal time
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60. Motivation and Job Design?
Potential disadvantages of telecommuting:
Working too much
Having less personal time
Difficulty in separating work and personal life
Less time for family
Feelings of isolation
Loss of visibility for promotion
Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a distance
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61. Motivation and Job Design
Contingency workers
Part-time workers who supplement the full-time workforce, often on a long-term basis
Part-time work
Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee
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62. Motivation and Job Design
Implications of part-time work:
Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labor costs and dealing with cyclical labor demands
Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive
Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits
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