1. Theories of Practice: The Human Resources Frame
MPA 8002
Organization Theory
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

2. A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.

3. MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)

4. the human resources frame

5. If the principles of scientific management were considered “revolutionary,” the assertions of the early human resources theorists were “radical”...

6. …as their hypotheses challenged the antecedents and theories of practice governing how managers viewed workers for the new Industrial era.

7. One of the earliest precursors of human resources theory...
Robert Owen
18th century mercantilist
owned spinning mills throughout Scotland
believed that worker productivity could be improved by being attentive to their basic human needs

8. provided workers a high standard of living, including:
decent, clean housing
life-long educational opportunities
preschool
progressive elementary and secondary schooling
day care
continuing adult education

9. in contrast to prevailing practice, Owen trained his managers in humane disciplinary practices...
...endeavored to make workers “origins” rather than “pawns” of the organization (de Charms, 1968)

10. Contrasting “pawns” and “origins”...
how managers and leaders view “pawns”:
how managers and leaders view “origins”:
passive “workers”
active “resources”
basically incompetent and lazy
competent and basically self-motivated
bring skills, attitudes, energy, enthusiasm, and commitment
require training
need close supervision
are self-regulating

11. how “pawns” experience work: how “origins” experience work:
“replaceable cogs” in a machine
invigorating opportunities to make a personal contribution
victims of incompetent bosses, bureaucratic inertia, and organizational doublespeak
a place to experience a sense of belonging, to build self-esteem, and to become self-actualized
alienating, dehumanizing, and frustrating
a place for personal and professional growth and challenge by asserting oneself and advocating one’s needs

12. The issue raised by the human resources theories of practice is that of better aligning people and organizations not people or organizations...

13. because... people need organizations
…for the extrinsic rewards work provides
…for the intrinsic satisfaction work can provide
organizations need people
…for a reliable and stable labor pool
…for the energy, effort, and talent people bring

14. The assumptions of human resources theories...
1. organizations exist to serve human needs
2. organizations and people need each other
salaries
ideas
opportunities
energy
careers
talent
3. the fit of people and organization is critical
an inappropriate fit can lead to exploitation or victimization by people and/or the organization

15. The rise of industrial/organizational psychology in the 20th century, especially human needs theories, provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit of people and organization...

16. Abraham Maslow (1954)... defined the hierarchy of pre-potent needs
5. self-actualization 5
4. self-esteem 4
3. belongingness 3
2. safety, security 2
1. physiological 1

17. Chris Argyris (1977)...
asserted that the worker-structure conflict is built into the traditional principles of organizational design and management
task specialization defines jobs as narrowly as possible to improve efficiency…
...but the outcome is that work is depersonalized and becomes monotonous

18. evidence of worker-structure conflict:
1. personal withdrawal—evident in absenteeism and
quitting
2. psychological withdrawal—evident in indifference
passivity, and apathy
3. resistance—evident in soldiering, deception,
feather bedding, and sabotage
4. power grabs—climbing the bureaucracy
5. forming coalitions (e.g., unions) to redress power
imbalances
6. socializing children with negative view of work
(i.e., unrewarding, little hope for advancement)

19. Frederick Herzberg et al. (1959)...
formulated a two factor theory of the motivation to work: M 2F A E
motivation is a psychological complex of two factors manifesting themselves in attitudes evident in their effects

20. hygiene factors 2F
2 FACTORS
motivators
these factors are the objective elements and subjective feelings (i.e., needs or drives activated by the events themselves) antecedent to an attitude

21. hygiene factors extrinsic
do not motivate but the absence of hygiene increases worker dissatisfaction
when hygiene is not met, workers strike or give up motivation and become addicted to hygiene

22. Good organizational hygiene provides the foundation for higher motivation in the workplace...
hygiene factors

23. motivators
intrinsic
experiences enabling personal growth and self-actualization in the work itself
doing complete jobs, experiencing success
achievement
engaging in work design and accountability
responsibility
the work itself
doing the job
engaging in new learnings, developing expertise
advancement

24. ...motivators build on hygiene factors...

25. To inculcate higher motivation in workers, managers and leaders should focus on:
using the organizing and planning functions to encourage high morale
attending to the workers’ attitudes not the work process

26. While attending to worker morale and attitudes, managers and leaders recognize:
that workplace hygiene is primary providing the foundation for motivation
that motivation to work is a psychological process not a matter of a worker’s interest in the job
that salary is a hygiene factor not a motivator

27. According to Herzberg et al
According to Herzberg et al.’s two-factor theory of motivation, the worst of all motivators is…
…an across-the-board salary increase

28. Douglas McGregor (1960)...
posited a theory of management, Theory X and Theory Y
…asserting that a manager’s assumptions about people become self-fulfilling prophecies evident in organizational behavior

29. possess little ambition
Theory X...
people are inherently:
lazy
passive
possess little ambition
prefer to be led
resist change

30. Theory X...
workers are characterized by:
…an external locus-of-control
…“other-centered” directedness

31. Theory X... management through: coercion tight controls threats
punishments

32. self-fulfilling prophecies:
Theory X...
self-fulfilling prophecies:
coercion
low productivity
tight controls
antagonism
threats
militant unions
punishments
subtle sabotage

33. Theory Y...
people are inherently:
motivated
active and interested
ambitious
prefer to lead
interested in change

34. Theory Y...
workers are characterized by:
…an internal locus-of-control
…self-direction

35. peer-controlled pay systems
Theory Y...
management through:
open systems
communication
self-managing teams
peer-controlled pay systems

36. Theory Y... management through: open systems needs and tasks aligned
communication
accurate feedback
self-managing teams
worker investment
peer-controlled pay systems
fairness and equity

37. the essential task of managers and leaders is to arrange organizational conditions…
…so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts toward organizational rewards

38. While industrial/organizational psychology provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit of people and organization...
…the goal of making the workplace and productivity a forum for people to express their freedom and dignity, as noble as this goal may be, has never been empirically proven.

39. Argyris & Schön (1974, 1996)...
juxtaposed two theories of practice, Model I and Model II
Model I…what managers and leaders say conflicts with what they do
Model II…through organizational learning, there is congruence between what managers and leaders say and do

40. Model I assumptions... organizations are competitive, dangerous places
watch out for yourself or someone else will do you in

41. Model I theory-in-use... core values action strategy
outcomes: behavior
outcomes: learning
identify and achieve goals
design and manage the environment unilaterally
defensive, inconsistent, fearful, and selfish appearance
no learning: self-sealing, protection from negative feedback

42. core values action strategy outcomes: behavior outcomes: learning
maximize winning, minimize losing
own and control what is relevant to one’s interests
engenders defensive, inconsistent, fearful, and selfish behaviors in others
“single-loop” learning:
core values and assumptions remain unquestioned

43. core values action strategy outcomes: behavioral outcomes: learning
minimize the expression of negative feelings
insulate oneself from criticism, discomfort, and vulnerability
reinforces defensive norms: mistrust, risk avoidance, conformity, and rivalry
core values and assumptions are tested privately

44. core values action strategy outcomes: behavior outcomes: learning
be rational
insulate others from being hurt
critical organizational issues are not discussed
collusion that impedes organizational learning

45. The Model I problem-solving process...
1. assume that others are causing the problem
2. develop a private, unilateral diagnosis and solution to the problem

46. 3. get other(s) to change by...
…calmly using facts, logic, and rational persuasion to assert the merits of your point of view
…using indirect coercive influences
…formulating and issuing direct critiques

47. 4. defensiveness confirms the original diagnosis
5. intensify pressures by offering to protect or to reject the other person(s)
6. if unsuccessful, bear no responsibility because the outcome is the other person(s) fault

48. Model I outcomes...
Managers and leaders using a Model I theory of practice increase in workers...
feelings of vulnerability
self-protecting behaviors
games of camouflage
deception

49. …and increase the probability of...
organizational
catastrophe

50. Model II problem-solving process...
1. emphasize common goals and mutual influence
LEADERS AND MANAGERS DO NOT FORGET: M
Mutually Assured Destruction produces no winners A D

51. 2. communicate openly and publicly, testing one’s assumptions and beliefs
Does what I espouse...
…what I do?

52. 3. combine inquiry with advocacy
what others think, know, want, and feel
inquiry
what I think, know, want, and feel
advocacy

53. Human resources theory requires that managers and leaders possess...
sufficiently good interpersonal skills:
a fundamental competence in relating with diverse individuals effectively
the refined ability to inquire in a non-threatening way:
What is going on here?
Why are people behaving as they are?
What can I do about it?

54. sufficiently good intrapersonal skills:
is not afraid of conflict
is able to confront conflict
in arguments, is able to distance oneself from the passion of the moment and to construct how other individuals are making sense of things
“complicates” (rather than simplifies) one’s understanding of how the organization really works

55. sufficiently good group skills:
negotiates the fit between the individual and the organization
is comfortable with plurality, diversity, and ambiguity
directs conflict towards productive ends
while solving problems, resolves organizational issues

56. while groups can promote... …groups can also generate
increased knowledge
caving into social pressure
a diversity of perspectives
inefficiency
time and energy
personal agendas which dominate the decision making process
improved communication
increased acceptance of decisions
unproductive constraints

57. to increase group productivity managers and leaders must be able to address:
other’s personal interests
the requirements of various task roles
the requirements of various personal roles
informal group norms
interpersonal conflict

58. Basic human resources strategies...
1. develop a long-term organizational commitment to the philosophy of human resources
build human resources in to the corporate and incentive structures
tactics:
develop quantitative and qualitative measures of human resources management

59. tactics: 2. invest in people
hire the right people and reward them well
provide job security
tactics:
promote from within
train and educate
share the wealth of success

60. tactics: 3. deal directly with people engage in active listening
provide accurate feedback
search for common interests
tactics:
experiment with ideas and proposals
doubt one’s infallibility
treat differences as a group responsibility

61. tactics: 4. empower people through work redesign
provide greater autonomy and participative management
tactics:
focus on job enrichment
emphasize teamwork
ensure egalitarianism
provide opportunities for upward hierarchical influence

62. Because change causes people to feel incompetent, needy, and powerless, providing for the development of new skills, creating opportunities for involvement, and providing psychological support are essential managerial/leadership tasks.

63. Using human resources theory...
…catalysts
effective managers and leaders are
…servants
…support
whose primary concerns are
…empowerment

64. Human resources tasks for managers and leaders...
1. help individuals and group develop a shared sense of direction and purpose
2. balance task and process goals
3. endeavor to make group work both satisfying and efficient

65. 4. keep on top of a large, complex set of activities
5. get support from bosses
6. get support from corporate staff and other constituents
7. motivate, coordinate, and control large, diverse group of subordinates

66. Abusing human resources theory...
…wimps
ineffective managers and leaders are
…pushovers
…making people happy
whose primary concerns are
…managing by abdication

67. Strengths of the human resources theory of practice...
…personal
…practical
…addresses fundamental human needs and interests

68. Limitations of the human resources theory of practice...
…naïve
…optimistic
…not realistic in a fast-changing environment

69. the human resources frame
Integrating reflective practice, conceptual pluralism, and organizational analysis...
Analyzing organizations through four frames inculcates the conceptual pluralism needed to diagnose the issues underlying the problems manifesting themselves in organizations.
the structural frame
the political frame
the human resources frame
the symbolic frame

70. This module has focused on...
the human resources theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes

71. the human resources frame
as these theories of practice provide managers a frame of reference to inform decision making, the
the human resources frame
offers managers and leaders guidance about the strengths and limits of human resources theory

72. A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.

73. MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)

74. the human resources frame

75. References
Argyris, C. (1977, Sept-Oct). Skilled incompetence. Harvard Business Review, 55(5), 
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1991). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959/1993). The motivation to work. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

76. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50,
McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of organization. New York: McGraw Hill.