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Theories of Practice: The Human Resources Frame
MPA 8002 Organization Theory Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.
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A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.
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MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring. Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)
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the human resources frame
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If the principles of scientific management were considered “revolutionary,” the assertions of the early human resources theorists were “radical”...
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…as their hypotheses challenged the antecedents and theories of practice governing how managers viewed workers for the new Industrial era.
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One of the earliest precursors of human resources theory...
Robert Owen 18th century mercantilist owned spinning mills throughout Scotland believed that worker productivity could be improved by being attentive to their basic human needs
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provided workers a high standard of living, including:
decent, clean housing life-long educational opportunities preschool progressive elementary and secondary schooling day care continuing adult education
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in contrast to prevailing practice, Owen trained his managers in humane disciplinary practices...
...endeavored to make workers “origins” rather than “pawns” of the organization (de Charms, 1968)
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Contrasting “pawns” and “origins”...
how managers and leaders view “pawns”: how managers and leaders view “origins”: passive “workers” active “resources” basically incompetent and lazy competent and basically self-motivated bring skills, attitudes, energy, enthusiasm, and commitment require training need close supervision are self-regulating
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how “pawns” experience work: how “origins” experience work:
“replaceable cogs” in a machine invigorating opportunities to make a personal contribution victims of incompetent bosses, bureaucratic inertia, and organizational doublespeak a place to experience a sense of belonging, to build self-esteem, and to become self-actualized alienating, dehumanizing, and frustrating a place for personal and professional growth and challenge by asserting oneself and advocating one’s needs
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The issue raised by the human resources theories of practice is that of better aligning people and organizations not people or organizations...
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because... people need organizations
…for the extrinsic rewards work provides …for the intrinsic satisfaction work can provide organizations need people …for a reliable and stable labor pool …for the energy, effort, and talent people bring
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The assumptions of human resources theories...
1. organizations exist to serve human needs 2. organizations and people need each other salaries ideas opportunities energy careers talent 3. the fit of people and organization is critical an inappropriate fit can lead to exploitation or victimization by people and/or the organization
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The rise of industrial/organizational psychology in the 20th century, especially human needs theories, provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit of people and organization...
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Abraham Maslow (1954)... defined the hierarchy of pre-potent needs
5. self-actualization 5 4. self-esteem 4 3. belongingness 3 2. safety, security 2 1. physiological 1
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Chris Argyris (1977)... asserted that the worker-structure conflict is built into the traditional principles of organizational design and management task specialization defines jobs as narrowly as possible to improve efficiency… ...but the outcome is that work is depersonalized and becomes monotonous
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evidence of worker-structure conflict:
1. personal withdrawal—evident in absenteeism and quitting 2. psychological withdrawal—evident in indifference passivity, and apathy 3. resistance—evident in soldiering, deception, feather bedding, and sabotage 4. power grabs—climbing the bureaucracy 5. forming coalitions (e.g., unions) to redress power imbalances 6. socializing children with negative view of work (i.e., unrewarding, little hope for advancement)
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Frederick Herzberg et al. (1959)...
formulated a two factor theory of the motivation to work: M 2F A E motivation is a psychological complex of two factors manifesting themselves in attitudes evident in their effects
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hygiene factors 2F 2 FACTORS motivators these factors are the objective elements and subjective feelings (i.e., needs or drives activated by the events themselves) antecedent to an attitude
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hygiene factors extrinsic
do not motivate but the absence of hygiene increases worker dissatisfaction when hygiene is not met, workers strike or give up motivation and become addicted to hygiene
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Good organizational hygiene provides the foundation for higher motivation in the workplace...
hygiene factors
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motivators intrinsic experiences enabling personal growth and self-actualization in the work itself doing complete jobs, experiencing success achievement engaging in work design and accountability responsibility the work itself doing the job engaging in new learnings, developing expertise advancement
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...motivators build on hygiene factors...
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To inculcate higher motivation in workers, managers and leaders should focus on:
using the organizing and planning functions to encourage high morale attending to the workers’ attitudes not the work process
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While attending to worker morale and attitudes, managers and leaders recognize:
that workplace hygiene is primary providing the foundation for motivation that motivation to work is a psychological process not a matter of a worker’s interest in the job that salary is a hygiene factor not a motivator
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According to Herzberg et al
According to Herzberg et al.’s two-factor theory of motivation, the worst of all motivators is… …an across-the-board salary increase
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Douglas McGregor (1960)... posited a theory of management, Theory X and Theory Y …asserting that a manager’s assumptions about people become self-fulfilling prophecies evident in organizational behavior
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possess little ambition
Theory X... people are inherently: lazy passive possess little ambition prefer to be led resist change
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Theory X... workers are characterized by: …an external locus-of-control …“other-centered” directedness
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Theory X... management through: coercion tight controls threats
punishments
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self-fulfilling prophecies:
Theory X... self-fulfilling prophecies: coercion low productivity tight controls antagonism threats militant unions punishments subtle sabotage
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Theory Y... people are inherently: motivated active and interested ambitious prefer to lead interested in change
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Theory Y... workers are characterized by: …an internal locus-of-control …self-direction
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peer-controlled pay systems
Theory Y... management through: open systems communication self-managing teams peer-controlled pay systems
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Theory Y... management through: open systems needs and tasks aligned
communication accurate feedback self-managing teams worker investment peer-controlled pay systems fairness and equity
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the essential task of managers and leaders is to arrange organizational conditions…
…so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts toward organizational rewards
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While industrial/organizational psychology provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit of people and organization... …the goal of making the workplace and productivity a forum for people to express their freedom and dignity, as noble as this goal may be, has never been empirically proven.
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Argyris & Schön (1974, 1996)... juxtaposed two theories of practice, Model I and Model II Model I…what managers and leaders say conflicts with what they do Model II…through organizational learning, there is congruence between what managers and leaders say and do
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Model I assumptions... organizations are competitive, dangerous places
watch out for yourself or someone else will do you in
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Model I theory-in-use... core values action strategy
outcomes: behavior outcomes: learning identify and achieve goals design and manage the environment unilaterally defensive, inconsistent, fearful, and selfish appearance no learning: self-sealing, protection from negative feedback
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core values action strategy outcomes: behavior outcomes: learning
maximize winning, minimize losing own and control what is relevant to one’s interests engenders defensive, inconsistent, fearful, and selfish behaviors in others “single-loop” learning: core values and assumptions remain unquestioned
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core values action strategy outcomes: behavioral outcomes: learning
minimize the expression of negative feelings insulate oneself from criticism, discomfort, and vulnerability reinforces defensive norms: mistrust, risk avoidance, conformity, and rivalry core values and assumptions are tested privately
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core values action strategy outcomes: behavior outcomes: learning
be rational insulate others from being hurt critical organizational issues are not discussed collusion that impedes organizational learning
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The Model I problem-solving process...
1. assume that others are causing the problem 2. develop a private, unilateral diagnosis and solution to the problem
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3. get other(s) to change by...
…calmly using facts, logic, and rational persuasion to assert the merits of your point of view …using indirect coercive influences …formulating and issuing direct critiques
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4. defensiveness confirms the original diagnosis
5. intensify pressures by offering to protect or to reject the other person(s) 6. if unsuccessful, bear no responsibility because the outcome is the other person(s) fault
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Model I outcomes... Managers and leaders using a Model I theory of practice increase in workers... feelings of vulnerability self-protecting behaviors games of camouflage deception
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…and increase the probability of...
organizational catastrophe
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Model II problem-solving process...
1. emphasize common goals and mutual influence LEADERS AND MANAGERS DO NOT FORGET: M Mutually Assured Destruction produces no winners A D
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2. communicate openly and publicly, testing one’s assumptions and beliefs
Does what I espouse... …what I do?
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3. combine inquiry with advocacy
what others think, know, want, and feel inquiry what I think, know, want, and feel advocacy
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Human resources theory requires that managers and leaders possess...
sufficiently good interpersonal skills: a fundamental competence in relating with diverse individuals effectively the refined ability to inquire in a non-threatening way: What is going on here? Why are people behaving as they are? What can I do about it?
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sufficiently good intrapersonal skills:
is not afraid of conflict is able to confront conflict in arguments, is able to distance oneself from the passion of the moment and to construct how other individuals are making sense of things “complicates” (rather than simplifies) one’s understanding of how the organization really works
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sufficiently good group skills:
negotiates the fit between the individual and the organization is comfortable with plurality, diversity, and ambiguity directs conflict towards productive ends while solving problems, resolves organizational issues
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while groups can promote... …groups can also generate
increased knowledge caving into social pressure a diversity of perspectives inefficiency time and energy personal agendas which dominate the decision making process improved communication increased acceptance of decisions unproductive constraints
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to increase group productivity managers and leaders must be able to address:
other’s personal interests the requirements of various task roles the requirements of various personal roles informal group norms interpersonal conflict
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Basic human resources strategies...
1. develop a long-term organizational commitment to the philosophy of human resources build human resources in to the corporate and incentive structures tactics: develop quantitative and qualitative measures of human resources management
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tactics: 2. invest in people
hire the right people and reward them well provide job security tactics: promote from within train and educate share the wealth of success
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tactics: 3. deal directly with people engage in active listening
provide accurate feedback search for common interests tactics: experiment with ideas and proposals doubt one’s infallibility treat differences as a group responsibility
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tactics: 4. empower people through work redesign
provide greater autonomy and participative management tactics: focus on job enrichment emphasize teamwork ensure egalitarianism provide opportunities for upward hierarchical influence
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Because change causes people to feel incompetent, needy, and powerless, providing for the development of new skills, creating opportunities for involvement, and providing psychological support are essential managerial/leadership tasks.
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Using human resources theory...
…catalysts effective managers and leaders are …servants …support whose primary concerns are …empowerment
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Human resources tasks for managers and leaders...
1. help individuals and group develop a shared sense of direction and purpose 2. balance task and process goals 3. endeavor to make group work both satisfying and efficient
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4. keep on top of a large, complex set of activities
5. get support from bosses 6. get support from corporate staff and other constituents 7. motivate, coordinate, and control large, diverse group of subordinates
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Abusing human resources theory...
…wimps ineffective managers and leaders are …pushovers …making people happy whose primary concerns are …managing by abdication
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Strengths of the human resources theory of practice...
…personal …practical …addresses fundamental human needs and interests
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Limitations of the human resources theory of practice...
…naïve …optimistic …not realistic in a fast-changing environment
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the human resources frame
Integrating reflective practice, conceptual pluralism, and organizational analysis... Analyzing organizations through four frames inculcates the conceptual pluralism needed to diagnose the issues underlying the problems manifesting themselves in organizations. the structural frame the political frame the human resources frame the symbolic frame
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This module has focused on...
the human resources theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes
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the human resources frame
as these theories of practice provide managers a frame of reference to inform decision making, the the human resources frame offers managers and leaders guidance about the strengths and limits of human resources theory
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A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.
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MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring. Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)
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the human resources frame
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References Argyris, C. (1977, Sept-Oct). Skilled incompetence. Harvard Business Review, 55(5), Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1991). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959/1993). The motivation to work. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
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Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of organization. New York: McGraw Hill.
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