1. Raw materials COLOR and PIGMENTS
Week 8
Raw materials
COLOR and PIGMENTS

2. History of pigment and colors
Stone Age ‘The first period of cave painting knows only black and red outlines.

3. Pigments in nature
Early artists had primarily earth tones in their palettes, many mineral-based.
charcoal brown ochre

4. 8000 B.C. Beads, pendants, and figurines carved from amber have turned up in graves dating from 8000 B.C. in northern Europe - placing amber among the early substances used by man for ornamentation.

7. Encaustic
The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans often used beeswax as the medium for pigments.
The encaustic method was in very common use until the 8th century A.D. and is still used by a few painters today.
In this technique finely ground pigment is mixed in melted wax and applied to the surface.
Waxes are polymers composed predominantly of hydrocarbons.
Fayum Funeral Portrait, Mummy Portrait of a Woman, Antinoopolis, End of the Reign of Trajan, A.D., Wax portrait on wood.

8. Fresco In fresco painting, the medium and the surface are the same.
Several processes involved in making a fresco are of chemical interest.
Limestone or marble which is made up from calcium carbonate is heated in a lime kiln to produce quicklime, CaO.
CaCO3   -->   CaO + CO2
The quicklime is then "slaked" with water to produce lime, Ca(OH)2, which is used to prepare the plaster.
CaO + H2O   -->   Ca(OH)2
As the plaster dries and ages, the calcium hydroxide in it undergoes a chemical reaction
with CO2 in the air changing it from Ca(OH)2 to CaCO3, which is the mineral that comprises limestone and marble.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2   -->   CaCO3 + H2O
This calcium carbonate matrix, which now contains the pigments of the painting, is
insoluble so that the painting is almost impervious to water.
However, calcium carbonate in all its forms reacts with sulfuric acid to give CaSO4 which
has a much greater solubility in water than does aCO3. Thus acid rain, which contains sulfuric acid, slowly converts the CaCO3 in frescoes and in marble sculpture to CaSO4. The CaSO4 then flakes of or washes away eventually destroying the artwork.
In fresco painting, the medium and the surface are the same.
An aqueous suspension of the pigment is applied directly to a wet plaster of calcium hydroxide and fine sand.
The pigment is absorbed and is bound into the surface as the plaster dries.

9. Pigments Pigments consist of small particles of colored compounds.
Are derived from finely ground naturally occurring minerals:  rocks and ores.

10. Mineral-Based (Inorganic) Pigments
hematite (Fe2O3 · nH2O) is a source of red, yellow, and brown ochre
cinnabar (HgS) is a source of the red pigment vermilion
azurite (2 CuCO3 · Cu(OH)2)

11. Egg Tempera
Until the 15th century, egg yolk was used as the most common binder and medium for paints.
Egg tempera is prepared by mixing egg yolks with a slurry of artist's pigment in water.
Enough water is added to provide the proper consistency for painting.
This paint dries extremely rapidly, and when applied thinly, it gives a translucent glaze that allows either a white surface ground or an undercoat to show through.
The drying and hardening process of the medium involves the both the denaturation of the proteins from the egg and polymerization of the fats in the yolk.
The proteins form many hydrogen bonds with each other and with the surface, locking the pigments into a solid matrix. As they age, these proteins form covalent bonds with each other, making the matrix very stable and permanent.

13. Vermilion Cinnabar Pigment
Vermilion is the standard name given to the red pigment based on artificially-made mercuric sulfide. The common red crystalline form of mercuric sulfide is cinnabar, a name reserved only for the natural mineral. The natural product found chiefly in Almaden and Idria has been eliminated for practical purposes (including that it is slightly poisonous). 
The synthesis of these mercury and sulphur into cinnabar is accomplished by mixing them together and heating them; if simply mixed and ground together, a black sulfide of mercury is formed, but at the proper temperature this vaporizes and recondenses in the top of the flask in which it is heated. The flask is then broken and the vermilion is removed and ground. Upon grinding the red color begins to appear, and the longer it is ground, the finer the color becomes. This process was understood before the year 800 AD. 
The properties of both natural and artificially prepared are practically identical. Cinnabar, a dense red mineral, is the principal ore of mercury or quicksilver. Vermilion is not generally considered today to be a permanent pigment. It has been known since Roman times that specimens of vermilion darken when exposed to light. In tests it has been discovered that impurities in the alkali polysylfides used to "digest" the pigment, leading to the instability of the red. This catalyzes the transition of the red to black. Also, we've found that the darkening of vermilion occurs mainly in paintings in egg tempera but it is not unknown in oil paintings. It is however fairly unreactive to other colors' chemical makeups; therefore, when mixed with lead white to produce flesh tones, it did not produce the black sulfides. 
Cinnabar pigment applied to sculpture and to paper.

14. Egyptian Blue It is one of the oldest man-made colors.
Commonly found on wall paintings in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Rome.
Calcium copper silicate
Egyptian blue ("frit," "Pompeiian blue"):
Origin and History: Very stable synthetical pigment of varying blue colour. It is one of the oldest man-made colors commonly found on wall paintings in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Rome. Many specimens, well over 3000 years old, appear to be little changed by the time. 
Making the Pigment: Heating a mixture of a calcium compound (carbonate, sulfate or hydroxide), copper compound (oxide or malachite) and quartz or silica gel in proportions that correspond to a ratio of 4 SiO2 : 1 CaO : 1 CuO to a temperature of 900°C using a flux of sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate or borax. The mixture is then maintained at a temperature of 800°C for a period ranging from 10 to 100 hours.
Chemical Properties: Calcium copper silicate, CaCuSi4O10. It is insoluble in acids even in warm temperatures.
Artistic Notes:  It has a discreet covering power. It can be used in fresco. Not advised in tempera, oil and encaustic. 

15. alizarin
Alizarin crimson is a red color that is biased slightly more towards purple than towards orange on the color wheel. It is named after the organic dye alizarin, found in the madder plant, and the related synthetic lake pigment alizarin crimson(PR83 in the Color Index).

16. Indigo was known and used as a dye in early Egypt
Indigo was known and used as a dye in early Egypt. It was mentioned by Pliny, who called it ‘indicum

17. Gemstone Makeup
Egyptian women put ground malachite mixed with water on their eyelids (as well as soot around their eyes).
Egyptian Makeup Pot
Both men and women used special powders and pastes to cover their skin. The make-up was not only worn to make them look attractive but also to protect them from the hot climate - quite similar to how we use sun cream today. This pot may have stored 'Khol' - black makeup that the Egyptians used to decorate their eyes.

18. ABOUT PIGMENTS
COLOR BASICS Before you embark on selecting colors for handmade or industrial cosmetics 
a knowledge base on the fundamentals of color theory,
color chemistry

19. Electromagnetic radiation
Only certain wavelengths of light can be detected by the human eye.

20. White Light
“White” light is actually composed of all colors in equal amounts.

21. Color Perception
Specialized cone cells in our eyes respond to visible light and signal color to the brain.

22. Color Perception
The Bird’s View
Birds have four different kinds of cones (one in the UV).
Dogs have only two (no green).

23. Color Perception
Adding magenta, cyan, and yellow pigments in equal proportions leads to black.
Adding magenta, cyan, and yellow pigments in unequal proportions leads to all possible colors of pigments.
Magenta, cyan, and yellow are the primary colors of pigments.

24. COLOR THEORY
When evaluating a color for cosmetics there are three key elements that need to be considered.
What is the source of light that the color will be viewed in: natural (sunlight) or artificial (fluorescent or incandescent).
What is the element it is desired for (lipstick, blush, etc)
What is the receptor? (the human eye for cosmetics)

25. Color Additives fall into one of two broad categories: Dyes and Pigments
Generally in cosmetics, the term solubility relates to water solubility. The majority of colors used in decorative cosmetics are pigments.

26. Pigments Category
Inorganic Pigments: The range of inorganic pigments used in cosmetics is made up of several different chemical types. In general, inorganic pigments are duller in color than their brighter organic counterparts. They are far superior though in the stability to heat and light. They can react in extreme conditions of pH. For example Ultramarines can react with acids and produce hydrogen sulphide as a by-product. It is the inorganic pigments that we most use in cosmetics subject to their purity levels of heavy metals.

29. Iron Oxides: 
These inorganic pigments are used in all types of cosmetics and have three basic shades: black, yellow and red. By blending these three oxides in the right proportions you can produce an array of browns, tans, and umbers for liquid foundations, face powders, and blushers. By careful blending an array of natural looking flesh tones may be produced.

30. Chromium Dioxides:
The Chromium dioxides are used for most categories of cosmetic preparations but are not permitted for use in lip products in the USA. Colors range from dull olive green, to a blue green, or bright green.

31. Ultramarines: 
 Ultramarines vary in shade from bright blue to violet, pink and even green. Ultramarine blue is not permitted in lip products in the USA.

32. Manganese Violet:
This brightly colored inorganic pigment is purple colored.

33. Iron Blue: 
 This very deep intense dark blue pigment is widely used in all cosmetic applications. It is not permitted in lip products in the USA

34. White Pigments: 
White pigments are widely used in all cosmetics, they have extremely good covering power and are almost totally inert in addition to being extremely stable to heat and light. Titanium Dioxide and Zinc Oxide are the most commonly used in cosmetics.

35. Mica: 
Chemically Mica is potassium aluminum silicate dihydrate. It is mined as the ore muscovite and occurs in multi-layered bright translucent sheets.  Cosmetic Mica is refined and ground to particle sizes from 150µm or less before use. Mica imparts a natural translucence to face powders and powder blushers when used at levels up to 40%. 

36. Pealescent Pearls
Plate like crystals that have a highly refractive index. The pearlescent effect is obtained as a result of individual plates lining up and acting like tiny mirrors. There are various types of materials used in cosmetics to produce this effect.

38. GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND INGREDIENTS
Binders: Pressed face powder and eye shadow are extremely popular because they can be easily carried and applied. In order for a free flowing powder to be pressed into cosmetic containers a liquid binder has first to be uniformly dispersed through it. 

39. Certified Lot Number:
This is the identifying number assigned to each batch of colorant by the FDA when a manufacturing company’s submitted batch is certified. It is unique to that color and that batch.

40. Safety: All the certified dyes listed for use in the US have been tested at least three times. “Safe” is determined by law as “convincing evidence that establishes with reasonable certainty that no harm will result from the intended use of the color additive.

41. The Color Index (CI): This is the best known reference book on color, edited jointly by the Society of Dyers and Colorists, and the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists. No matter what language one speaks if the CI number is known, the chemical, structure, and physical properties of the colorant is available.

43. Ext. D&C Colors: Colors for use in externally applied drugs and cosmetics which do not come in contact with mucous membranes.

44. For the most part the inorganic pigments, pearlescent pigments and Lakes are what we will use and sell at DIY Cosmetics. They are generally the safest and most approved colors for use in eye shadows, powders, blushes, mascara, and eyeliner. It is important that the pigments used are specially produced for cosmetics and purified with no heavy metals.
Dyes: Colorants which are soluble in vehicles such as water, alcohol, glycerin or oils.

45. Natural Dyes: Widely used in foodstuffs there is no restriction on the use of natural dye in cosmetics apart from purity considerations. In general natural dyes are not resistant to heat, light, and pH stability. This makes them much inferior to their synthetic counterparts. They should be thoroughly tested in finished products. In some instances natural dyes exhibit strong odors.
Cosmetics have a line of these natural colorant in liquid form sourced from plants and flowers.

46. Acid Dyes: All of the water soluble dyes are classified chemically as acid dyes. Acid dyes are usually the sodium salts of sulfonated or caboxylated dye molecules. Solvent Dyes: The oil soluble or non-polar dyes are those which have no salt forming groups on the dye molecule. They will dissolve in hydrocarbons, oils, waxes and aromatic solvents. Pure Dye: This is the amount of dye actually contained in the certified colorant, exclusive of inorganic salts, moisture, side reaction products, or un-reacted intermediates. 

47. COLOR EFFECT vs. PARTICLE SIZE Particle Size 15 µm or less = low luster, good hiding power Particle Size 2-25 µm = silky luster and strong hiding powder Particle Size µm = pearl luster with medium hiding power Particle Size µm = shimmering luster and low hiding power Particle Size µm = sparkling luster and transparent Particle Size µm = glittering luster and very transparent