1. Page, Shapiro & Dempsey 1987 (Graber ch. 7)
What moves public opinion?
Use national surveys of public opinion (support or oppose a policy) – look at change over time –
32 domestic policies, 48 foreign policies
WHAT INFLUENCED PUBLIC OPINION, CONTRIBUTED TO CHANGE IN MASS OPINION?
Factors considered: different sources of info—
Pro or con statements (e.g. opposing war, supporting president’s policy) from different sources:

2. Influences on public opinion
News commentary (from anchors, reporters in the field, special commentators)- e.g. should US withdraw from Vietnam?
Expert opinion (e.g. experts on nuclear weapons – scientists, retired military - speaking about controls on spread of nuclear weapons)
Presidents (popular v. unpopular)
Interest groups (war protestors, special interests) – opinion often moves in opposite direction from them
CREDIBILITY…. Dated-ness of study re: journalists

3. Framing
Framing means focusing on a particular aspect of a story, foregrounding something and backgrounding other aspects. Frames define the boundaries and relevant aspects of an issue.
TWO TYPES OF FRAMES:
EPISODIC: event-oriented frames, focus on a specific event or person (e.g. story about one person in a certain situation – AIDS, poverty, homelessness - and his life)
THEMATIC: place political issues in broader context (e.g. look at how reduction in federally subsidized housing has increased homelessness)
Also frames may show people of different races, ethnicities in different lights – blacks as welfare recipients, Muslims as terrorists

4. Frames can
activate certain considerations, make citizens access certain considerations in their minds rather than other considerations when evaluating an issue.
Change opinions on an issue.
Heighten emotional response (e.g. anxiety)
Influence not just the public but also policy makers.

5. Framing of crime issue Iyengar and Gillam in Graber text
* Experimental study 1995
* Interested in effects of framing with regard to age and race of perpetrator and race of perpetrator and victim
Showed crime stories in which there were photos of white and non white suspects – look at support for punitive crime policies and level of fear among respondents
*Findings??
differential response among white and nonwhite viewers of the stories
Table 10.3 on p. 137

6. Neuman, Just and Crigler: from the book Common Knowledge
Criticize “media effects” perspective and view of voters as ignorant/un-informed

7. Constructionist approach
Emphasizes an active, meaning-constructing audience
Structuring of information by media is not done by isolated individuals but taps into shared perspectives and frames

8. Frames used by media and citizens
Economic frame (bottom line/profit/monetary aspect)
Conflict frame - us versus them – two opposing sides (media uses more than citizens)
Powerlessness frame (control by powerful others)
Human impact frame
Moral values frames (citizens use more than media)