AP Biology Review Frequent Fliers!!.

AP Biology Review Frequent Fliers!!

Warm Up Get out a sheet of paper (one per person)
Read 2 frq questions, DO NOT ANSWER YET Outline what question is asking first, make sure you understand exactly what the question is asking

LEVELS of ORGANIZATION
LEVELS of ORGANIZATION! Name them and give an emergent property at each level! Atom – CHNOPS – basic building blocks for all life – functional groups Molecule – organic because of C and H Organelle – compartmentalization – specialization of a function and efficiency Cell – life – CHOGEERS – unicellular or multicellular Tissue – specialized function due to gene expression and cell differentiation – ex: muscle vs. nerve (still have same DNA) Organ – highly specialized functions – connect systems together Organ system – connect internal environment to the external environment Organism – single biotic factor Population – reproduction and interbreeding (species) – unless unicellular – evolutionary change Community – biotic factors interacting – symbiosis Ecosystem – biotic and abiotic interaction – cycling of nutrients and energy transfer Biome – large spans of ecosystem Biosphere – Earth and atmosphere

Biochemistry!!

2. Which 2 functional groups above are found in amino acids?
1. Name the functional groups and an organic compound each is found in. Sulfhydryl Disulfide Bridges (proteins) Hydroxyl Carbs Aldehyde – carbonyl Glucose and Ribose Ketone – carbonyl Steroid hormones (testosterone) and Fructose Amino – Proteins Carboxyl – Proteins and lipids Phosphate – ATP, DNA, RNA 2. Which 2 functional groups above are found in amino acids? Amino and Carboxyl

3. Name the 4 organic compounds and the elements in each.
Carbs – CHO Lipids – CHO (P in phospholipids only) Proteins – CHON (S) Nucleic Acids - CHONP 4. Give 2 examples of each of the 4 organic compounds. Carbs – glucose, starch, glycogen, cellulose Lipids – phospholipids, cholesterol Proteins – transport protein, enzyme, receptor Nucleic Acids – DNA, RNA, ATP

5. Name the reaction that builds polymers (organic compounds from their monomers).
Dehydration synthesis or condensation reaction Carbs – monosaccharides Lipids – 3 fatty acids and glycerol Proteins – amino acids Nucleic Acids – nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, base) 6. Distinguish between hydrogen bonds and covalent bonds. Give an example where each is found. Hydrogen – weak – between H and O or N on another molecule between water molecules and DNA (A = T, C = G) Covalent – strong – share electrons phosphodiester bonds, peptide bonds, disulfide bridges

7. What is the cell membrane made of?
Phospholipids, proteins (peripheral and integral), cholesterol, carbohydrates (glycoproteins and glycolipids) 8. Name 3 important properties of water. Cohesion – Surface Tension and transpiration Adhesion - transpiration Density – insulates marine life in winter High Specific Heat – temperature moderation Heat of vaporization – evaporative cooling

9. What are the 4 levels of protein structure
9. What are the 4 levels of protein structure? Name a bond for each level. Primary – peptide – covalent Secondary – alpha helix or beta pleated sheet – hydrogen Tertiary – disulfide bridges – covalent Quaternary – disulfide bridges and hydrogen bonds 10. How are macromolecules (organic compounds) broken apart? Hydrolysis 11. Contrast hydrophilic and hydrophobic. Give an example of each. Hydrophilic – water loving – polar – phosphate heads in a phospholipid and protein hormones Hydrophobic – water fearing – nonpolar – tails in a phospholipid and steroid hormones

14. How can enzymes be regulated?
12. What is the function of an enzyme and how does it accomplish it’s function? Speeds up a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy. 13. How can an enzymatic reaction be measured? Disappearance of the substrate or appearance of the product. Ex: H2O2 used or O2 produced 14. How can enzymes be regulated? Inhibition – competitive or non competitive (allosteric) Altered Temp and ph

Carbohydrates- CHO 1:2:1 ratio, monomer= monosaccharides, 2=disaccharides, 3 or more= polysaccharides Used for energy (cell respiration) Examples glucose- immediate energy to make ATP starch- stored energy in plants glycogen- stored energy in animals (stored in liver) cellulose- plant cell wall

Lipids – C, H, O (not a 1:2:1 ratio) *P only in phospholipids
fats, waxes, oils and sterols Saturated fats have single bonds between carbons, unsaturated fats have at least one double bond between carbons (kinky); plants make polyunsaturated; animals make monounsaturated Phospholipids make up cell membranes (double layer) and are amphipathic- hydrophilic and hydrophobic uses- in all membranes, sex hormones, & corticoids; stored energy, protection, insulation, myelin sheath of nerves

How do the unique chemical and physical properties of water make life on earth possible?
Solvent High Specific Heat High Heat of Vaporization (turn to gas) High Surface Tension adhesion and cohesion

What is the role of carbon in the diversity of life?
Carbon is a key player in biochemistry because it can form four stable bonds to other atoms at once. This means it can form long chains and also bind reactive side groups that help it bend into useful shapes and elaborate structures. It is thought that if life develops on other planets it would probably have to be carbon-based or silicone-based because they are the only elements that can form such chains.

How do cells synthesize and break down macromolecules?
monosaccharides, such as glucose and fructose, are hooked together by a process called dehydration synthesis. A larger molecule is synthesized by removing a water molecule from between them - an H from one and an OH from the other, freeing up a covalent bond on each. Two of those free bonds join together to make HOH (water), and the other 2 join to make the disaccharide called sucrose

How do structures of biological molecules account for their function (carbs, proteins, lipids, DNA)?
carbohydrates as used to make ATP via celluar respiration. It can also be used in cells as cell walls (chitin and cellulose are both carbohydrates). Their structure is appropriate, because it's purpose is an energy bank and thus getting the energy when it is needed would be helpful. All you have to do to get energy from polysaccharides is just add H2O and it'll become a simpler monosaccharide, easily able to be formed into ATP.

Lipids- Includes triglycerols, steriods, phospholipids, and fats. Fats: fatty acids and glycerol, has a carboxyl group at the end. Fats help to protect organs, provide insulation, and to store energy. Saturated and Unsaturated Fats: Saturated has kinks, Unsaturated has no kinks.

Structural proteins – Storage proteins – Transport proteins – Enzymes Primary structure is composed of amino acids; secondary structure are alpha helixes and beta sheets; Tertiary structure are folds of a-helixes and b-sheets, R group interactions make them fold; Quaternary structure have complex folds and twists, interaction between proteins with subunits.

Lab Question

Lab 1: Diffusion & Osmosis
ESSAY 1992 A laboratory assistant prepared solutions of 0.8 M, 0.6 M, 0.4 M, and 0.2 M sucrose, but forgot to label them. After realizing the error, the assistant randomly labeled the flasks containing these four unknown solutions as flask A, flask B, flask C, and flask D. Design an experiment, based on the principles of diffusion and osmosis, that the assistant could use to determine which of the flasks contains each of the four unknown solutions. Include in your answer: a description of how you would set up and perform the experiment; the results you would expect from your experiment; and an explanation of those results based on the principles involved. Be sure to clearly state the principles addressed in your discussion.

Lab 2: Enzyme Catalysis

Lab 2: Enzyme Catalysis Description
measured factors affecting enzyme activity H2O2  H2O + O2 measured rate of O2 production catalase

Lab 2: Enzyme Catalysis Concepts substrate enzyme product
enzyme structure product denaturation of protein experimental design rate of reactivity reaction with enzyme vs. reaction without enzyme optimum pH or temperature test at various pH or temperature values

Lab 2: Enzyme Catalysis Conclusions
enzyme reaction rate is affected by: pH temperature substrate concentration enzyme concentration calculate rate?

Lab 2: Enzyme Catalysis ESSAY 2000
The effects of pH and temperature were studied for an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. The following results were obtained. a. How do (1) temperature and (2) pH affect the activity of this enzyme? In your answer, include a discussion of the relationship between the structure and the function of this enzyme, as well as a discussion of ho structure and function of enzymes are affected by temperature and pH. b. Describe a controlled experiment that could have produced the data shown for either temperature or pH. Be sure to state the hypothesis that was tested here.

Cells and Transport!!

1. Compare and contrast prokaryotes with eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes – No Nucleus, Binary Fission, Circular double stranded DNA w/o histone proteins, small ribosomes, unicellular Eukaryotes – NUCLEUS, Membrane bound organelles, Mitosis and Meiosis, Linear double stranded DNA w/ histone proteins, larger ribosomes, most multicellular (except “protists”) BOTH – Cell Membrane, Ribosomes, Cytosol, Double stranded DNA, Glycolysis 2. Cell membrane functions? Give 3! Protection – Semi-permeablity Transport – Active and Passive Communication – Glycoproteins and receptor proteins

3. Organelles involved in protein production? In order!
Nucleus - DNA Ribosomes – Make Proteins (Bound vs. Free) RER & Vesicles – Transport Proteins Golgi & Vesicles – Modify and export 4. Organelles involved in energy production? Chloroplast – converts light energy to chemical energy (glucose) Mitochondria – converts chemical energy (glucose) into ATP 5. Organelles involved in digestion of wastes? Lysosomes and vacuoles (in plants)

6. Communication between adjacent cells?
Plasmodesmata – plant cells Gap Junctions – animal cells 7. Phases of the cell cycle? In order! G1  S  G2  M  C 8.Name 4 BIG things that happen in meiosis that DON’T happen in mitosis that lead to genetic variation! Homologous Chromosomes Pair – Prophase I Crossing Over – Prophase I Independent Assortment – Metaphase I Segregation of homologous chromosomes – Anaphase I

9.3 steps in cell communication! In order and an example of each!
Reception – receptor protein binds ligand (hormone) membrane receptor – polar hormone cytoplasmic receptor – steroid hormone Transduction – cascade second messengers – Ca2+ or cAMP Response – action in cell transcription factors – activate genes – protein hormone cellular activity – activate enzymes, apoptosis – steroid hormones

10. Name 3 factors that can affect an enzymes reaction rate?
Temp – increases to a pt then denatures pH – must be optimal Concentration of Enzyme or Substrate – increases rate 11. Difference between a hypertonic solution, isotonic solution, and hypotonic solution? Explain using water potential! Hypertonic – cell has a higher water potential than solution Isotonic – equal water potentials Hypotonic – solution has the higher water potential

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (1) What are their similarities and differences?
Prokaryotic cells: · Less complex · DNA is located in the nucleoid which is not membrane bond Chromosomes are dispersed in the cytoplasm No true nucleus and no membrane-bound organelles Have circular chromosomes and lack histone proteins Small - typically micrometers in diameter Have a primitive cytosketetal structures or don't have a cytoskeleton at all Reproduce sexually by the transfer of DNA fragments through conjugation. Don't undergo meiosis.

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (1) What are their similarities and differences?
Eukaryotic cells: More complex DNA is located in the nucleus, bonded by a double membrane Contain true nuclei in which chromosomes are compacted as chromatin Contain membrane-bound organelles Have linear DNA and contain histone proteins Larger - typically micrometers in diameter Have a complex cytosketeton Reproduce sexually with the use of meiosis

ii) Membranes (1) What is the current model of the molecular architecture of membranes?
phospholipid bilayer where membrane proteins were able to move, rather than be static lipids with hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads. integral membrane proteins, which are partially inserted and peripheral proteins which attach to the surface. There also is cholesterol= increase fluiditiy and carbohydrates on the outer portion, used as markers. selectively permeable, as it allows some small molecules to pass through

Membrane Structures: different proteins with different structures, and therefore different functions that are embedded in different membranes. in the cell membrane, there are embedded proteins that function in transporting nutrients into the cell, and waste products out of the cell. in the membranes of your mitochondria, proteins are needed to serve as electron carriers (this makes the electron transport chain work).

Membrane Function Membranes are held together by hydrophobic interactions Proteins and lipids can move around laterally on one layer but rarely flip to the other side Some move along cytoskeleton fibers Membrane remains fluid as temperature decreases until the phospholipids settle into a closely packed arrangement Membrane remains fluid longer if there are more phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon tails eparated more because of the kinks in the tails Cholesterol At higher temperatures, it makes the membrane less fluid Restrains phospholipid movement Lowers the temperature required for membranes to solidify because they are packed less tightlyTemperature buffer

Major functions of proteins in the plasma membrane
Transport Hydrophilic channel through the protein Shuttle a substance from one side to the other by changing shape Enzymatic Activity May have an active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution Signal Transduction May have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger, such as a horomone May cause a shape change in the protein that relays the message to the inside of the cell Cell-Cell Recognition Some glycoproteins are identification tags that are recognized by membrane proteins of other cells Intercellular Joining Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may hook together in junctions Attachment to the Cytoskeleton and Extracellular Matrix Microfilaments may be bound to membrane proteins, which stabilizes the location of certain membrane proteins and maintain cell shape

(4) What are various mechanisms by which substances cross membranes
(4) What are various mechanisms by which substances cross membranes? Diffusion: moves from high to low concentration; no energy required OSMOSIS- the movement of water through a membrane until reaching equilibrium. There are three different types of osmotic conditions. Hypertonic is the movement of water out of the cell. Hypotonic is the movement of water inside the cell in which the cell becomes turgid. The third type of osmosis is isotonic in which equal amounts of water move in and out of the cell. Facilitated Diffusion: carrier proteins aid in moving the substrate through the membrane if the substance cannot diffuse directly through the membrane itself; continues, to move from high to low concentration; no energy required Active Transport: Energy is required as it is going against the concentration gradient.

(1)How does compartmentalization organize a cell's function?
Compartmentalization allows each compartment to perform specific functions without interference from other cell functions. For example, lysosomes can break down cell debris in a compartment without accidentally digesting the cell itself. It also allow enzymes and substrates to reach higher concentrations than if everything was diluted by the entire cytoplasm. For example, the mitochondria accumulates a large electron gradient in order for the electron transport chain to work.

(2) How are the structures of the various subcellular organelles related to their functions?
They are directly related to their functions. The mitochondrial cristae have a higher surface area to facilitate cellular respiration. The phospholipid bilayer of a cell membrane allows nutrients and fat soluble vitamins across the cell membrane. Cilia and flagella function as propellers for locomotion. The rigid cell wall of plants provides structure. In each of the above cases, structure influences function. Cells have evolved over time to efficiently carry out their respective functions.

(3) How do organelles function together in cellular processes?
Organelles such as the cell wall and membrane work with the rest of the cell by not letting in/out certain particles, and providing structural integrity. The nucleus works with the nucleolus by creating to make ribosomes, which are then transported to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Proteins are then made. Proteins travel through channels in the endoplasmic reticulum and go to the golgi body. The golgi body packs and makes them ready to be transported to the border of the cell.

(3) How do organelles function together in cellular processes?
The nucleus is the organelle that functions as the command center. The nucleus contains the genetic code material, in the form of DNA, that coordinates the growth and function of the rest of the cell. An organelle that works very closely with the nucleus is the ribosome. The ribosome---through the molecule messenger RNA---obtains the codes from the DNA in the nucleus for building cellular proteins. A fairly large and extensive organelle is the endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum is a complex series of folded membranes. It is connected to the membrane that surrounds the nucleus and extends out into the cell's cytoplasm. In doing so, it establishes a chemical communication pathway between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. One of its critical functions is to transport proteins within the cell. An organelle that is somewhat similar to the endoplasmic reticulum is the Golgi apparatus. It functions in a similar way except that it specializes in preparing materials, like proteins, for transport through the cell membrane to the exterior of the cell.

(4) What factors limit cell size?
Cell size is limited to the logistics of cellular metabolism: the plasma membrane functions as a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes service the entire cell. The surface area to volume ratio is crucial in determining cell size as there is a limit to how much of a particular substance can cross a certain area per second. As a cell grows, it's volume increases more than its surface area. A high ratio of surface area to volume is especially important in cells that exchange a lot of materials with their surroundings.

Cell Cycle and Regulation

(1) How does the cell cycle assure genetic continuity?
When the cells divide, they must replicate every chromosome so the new cells have all the genetic material of the old cell. If a chromosome is missing, then the cell with the mutation would not be able to survive. This is similar to natural selection on a cellular level, as only those cells which are complete enough to survive will pass on their genetic material.

(2) How does mitosis allow for the even distribution of genetic information to new cells?
The genetic material is copied during the phase right before prophase, in the S (synthesis phase) of interphase, where the chromosomes are duplicated once. Mitosis then occurs, and it can be divided into 5 phases- prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The genetic material is wound, and the copies are split up between the two new cells which are formed. Each new cell gets an exact duplicate of the genetic material.

(3) What are the mechanisms of cytokinesis?
Cytokinesis occurs after telophase and is the process where the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell is divided to form two daughter cells. In both animals and plants, it involves vesicles which are made by the Golgi apparatus and move along microtubules. In animal cells, a cleaveage furrow develops, separating the two nuclei. In plants, the vesicles create a cell plate, which develops into a cell wall separating the two nuclei. An exception to this process is in animal cells during oogenisis,where the ovum takes all the cytoplasm and organelles, leaving the polar bodies to die.

Cell Cycle Regulation:

(4) How is the cell cycle regulated?
The cell cycle is regulated so that cells do not constantly undergo cell division and to signal the movement from one phase of the cycle to the next. There are two main proteins involved- cyclin-dependent protein kinases (Cdks) and cyclins. Cdks are enzymes which stimulate phosphorylation, signaling for the cell to move on to the next stage. They are dependent on being bound with cyclins. Cyclins are constantly being synthesized and degraded. When they exist, they bind to Cdks to form a cyclin-Cdk complex. The cyclin will eventually degrade, and signal exist from a stage. There are G1 cyclins and miotic cyclings (normally accumulate during G2). There also are cell checkpoints which prevent the cell cycle from progressing at certain points. The two main checkpoints exists between G1/S and G2/M.

Lab Question

Metabolism!!

1. What is chemiosmosis? Describe it!
Pumping of H+ ions across a membrane to create a concentration gradient as electrons pass through an ETC H+’s flow through ATP Synthase to create ATP 2. Where does chemiosmosis happen? (2 places) Inner Mitochondrial Membrane - Oxidative Phosphorylation Thylakoid Membrane – Light Reactions

4. Where do the light reactions and Calvin cycle take place?
3. What are the “phases of photosythesis” and their inputs and outputs? CO2 Sun + H2O  Light Reactions  ATP + NADPH  Calvin Cycle  Glucose O2 4. Where do the light reactions and Calvin cycle take place? Chloroplasts Light Reactions – Thylakoid Membrane Calvin Cycle - Stroma

5. What are the 3 steps in aerobic respiration and their inputs and outputs?

6. Where does aerobic respiration (the steps) take place?
Cytosol & Mitochondria Glycolysis – Cytosol Krebs Cycle – Mitochondrial Matrix ETC – Inner Mitochondrial Membrane 7. How is ATP produced if O2 is not available? Fermentation – Lactic Acid or Ethyl Alcohol become the electron acceptors instead of O2 Glycolysis still happens!

Inner Mitochondrial Membrane (Cristae)
8. Compare the following. Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis Where does energy come from? Where do H+ ions build up? Final ETC electron acceptor ? Location of ETC ? In plants ? In animals ? Glucose Sun Intermembrane Space Thylakoid Space Oxygen NADP+ Inner Mitochondrial Membrane (Cristae) Thylakoid Membrane BOTH Plants

Lab Question

Genetics Heredity!!

1. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.
Both Meiosis 2 identical cells Nuclear division 4 non- identical cells Diploid (2n) DNA replication 1 time Haploid (n) Somatic Cells (Body Cells) Eukaryotes Homologous Chromosome pairing (prophase 1) Crossing over Independent Assortment (Metaphase 1) Separation of Homologous Chromosomes (Anaphase 1) Gametes (Reproductive Cells) 1 Division PMAT 2 Divisions Cytokinesis Growth and Repair Reproduction

3. What do the following stand for: P2 , 2pq , q2 , p, and q?
2. What is an allele? How many to make a genotype to code for a phenotype? Different versions of a gene Dominant vs. recessive 2 – homozygous vs. heterozygous 3. What do the following stand for: P2 , 2pq , q2 , p, and q? p2 – frequency of homozygous dominant 2pq – frequency of heterozygous q2 – frequency of homozygous recessive p – frequency of dominant allele q – frequency of recessive allele

4. What are the genotypic and phenotypic ratio for a heterozygous monohybrid cross? WHY?
Law of Segregation 5. What is the phenotypic ratio from the following cross if the genes aren’t linked: Aabb x aaBb? WHY? 1:1:1:1 Law of Independent Assortment 6. Perform a Punnett square for a colorblind dad and a carrier mom. What are the chances they’ll produce a colorblind daughter? Son? Daughter – 25% Son – 25%

7. A form of vitamin D-resistant rickets, known as hypophosphatemia, is inherited as an X-linked dominant trait. If a male with hypophosphatemia marries a normal female, which of the following predictions concerning their potential progeny would be true? a. All of their sons would inherit the disease b. All of their daughters would inherit the disease c. About 50% of their sons would inherit the disease d. About 50% of their daughters would inherit the disease e. None of their daughters would inherit the disease

8. In the pedigree below, squares represent males and circles represent females. Individuals who express a particular trait are represented by shaded figures. Which of the following patterns of inheritance best explains the transmission of the trait? a. Sex-linked dominant b. Sex-linked recessive c. Autosomal recessive d. Autosomal dominant e. Incompletely dominant

9. If a child has blood type A and the mother is B what blood type does the father have?
AB or A

10. A male fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) with red eyes and long wings was mated with a female with purple eyes and vestigial wings. All of the offspring in the F1 generation had red eyes and long wings. These F1 flies were test crossed with purple-eyed, vestigial-winged flies. Their offspring, the F2 generation, appeared as indicated below. What does this data suggest? F2 Generation 125 red eyes, long wings 124 purple eyes, vestigial wings 18 purple eyes, long wings 16 red eyes, vestigial wings 283 Total Red eyes and long wings are linked and purple eyes and vestigial wings are linked. Does not follow the law of independent assortment. Not 1:1:1:1! The purple/long and red/vestigial are due to crossing over.

Lab Question

Genetics Molecular!!

1. Compare and contrast DNA and RNA.
BOTH RNA Deoxyribose Sugar Ribose Thymine Bases – A,C,G Uracil Double Stranded Nucleotides Single Stranded Nucleus Cytoplasm (Ribosomes) 2. What is the Central Dogma? DNA  RNA  Protein  Trait 3. What are the 2 steps in protein synthesis and where do they occur? Transcription - DNA  mRNA (Nucleus) Translation – mRNA  Protein (Ribosome)

4. How and when does DNA replicate? Be specific!!
During the S phase of Interphase Semi-conservative Old strand (template) for new strand Helicase unzips the DNA DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides in a 5’  3’ direction. Leading strand follows the replication fork Laggin strand creates okazaki fragments which are then sealed together with Ligase

6. What are the roles of mRNAs, tRNAs, rRNAs, and siRNAs?
5. What modifications must be made to pre-mRNA before it can leave the nucleus? 5’ Guanine Cap 3’ polyA tail Splice out introns and fuse exons with snrps and spliceosomes 6. What are the roles of mRNAs, tRNAs, rRNAs, and siRNAs? mRNA – messenger that contains codons to be read by the ribosome tRNA – transfers amino acids to the ribosome using an anticodon that matches with mRNA’s codon rRNA – ribosomal – a component of ribosomes (made in the nucleolus) siRNA – small interfering – regulate gene expression by destoying mRNA post transcription but pre-translation

7. Explain how an inducible operon works.

8. How are genes regulated in eukaryotes?
DNA Methylation – coils DNA so transcription cannot occur Histone Acetylation – uncoils DNA so transcription can occur – RNA polymerase can bind to the TATA box Transcription factors (hormones) – needed for transcription initiation complex to be activated so RNA polymerase can bind to the promoter of the mRNA siRNA’s – post transcriptional gene regulation Intron splicing – exons remain Enhancers – bind activators (transcription factors) to turn on DNA

9. Name and describe the effects of 3 point mutations.
Insertion – frameshift Deletion – frameshift Substitution – silent if codes for the same amino acid, nonsense (stop codon) or missense if codes for a new amino acid. Example – sickle cell anemia – abnormal beta hemoglobin 10. Name and describe the effects of 3 chromosomal mutations. Duplication – double genes Deletion – removal of an entire gene Translocation – swapping of DNA on non-homologous chromosomes Inversion – genes out of order (backwards) Nondisjunction – extra or one less chromosome - trisomy 21 – down syndrome

11. Why are mutations evolutionarily important?
Raw source of genetic variation – without variation in phenotypes natural selection cannot occur. 12. How can DNA be modified and inserted into a bacteria? Restriction Enzymes (same one) cut DNA (gene of interest) and plasmid Ligase seals the plasmid to gene of interest Bacteria is transformed using heat shock

13. What is gel electrophoresis and how does it work?
Gel matrix that separates DNA or protein particles based on size and charge. DNA is negatively charged so it travels to the positive (red) electrode. Smaller fragments travel farther than larger fragments 14.Why is DNA negatively charged? Phosphate groups in the sugar phosphate backbone

15. Identify the following:

Lab Question

Evolution!!

1. What are the sources of variation in a population?
Mutations Sexual Recombination (crossing over, independent assortment, random fusion of gametes) 2. What are the 5 components of Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection? Variation Overproduction Competition for limited resources Differential survival – individuals with favorable characteristics survive Differential reproduction – alleles for favorable traits will increase in the population INDIVIDUALS SURVIVE BUT POPULATIONS EVOLVE

Sexual = nonrandom mating
3. What are the 4 types of natural selection? Draw a graph for 3 of them! Disruptive Directional Stabilizing Sexual = nonrandom mating 4. What are the 5 causes of evolution? Mutation Genetic Drift – Small Population – Bottleneck or founder effect Gene Flow – Migration Natural Selection Nonrandom mating = sexual selection

5. What are the major evidences for evolution?
Fossil Record – Paleontology Convergent Evolution – Biogeography Comparative anatomy – homologous structures and vestigial structures Comparative Embryology Comparative Biochemistry or Macromolecules Artificial Selection 6. What are 2 evidences that support a universal common ancestor? Universal Genetic Code – DNA or RNA All living things perform glycolysis Ribosomes

7. What is the definition of a species?
Group of organisms that can reproduce fertile offspring 8. How do new species form? Allopatrically – geographic barrier Sympatrically – without a geographic barrier (polyploidy) – reproductively isolated pre-zygotic reproductive isolation post-zygotic reproductive isolation

9. What are the rates of speciation shown below and under what conditions might each occur?

Abiotic conditions – lacked O2 Stanley Miller – Urey experiment
10. What were the conditions of early Earth and what experiment supports life arising from those early conditions? Abiotic conditions – lacked O2 Stanley Miller – Urey experiment 11. Describe 3 characteristics of the universal common ancestor! Heterotrophic prokaryote Circular DNA Unicellular No membrane bound organelles Asexual reproduction Cell membrane and cytoplasm Ribosomes

12. What is the theory of endosymbiosis and what are the evidences to support it?
Prokaryote engulfed another prokaryote and formed a symbiotic relationship Mitochondria = heterotrophic prokaryote that was engulfed by another prokaryote Chloroplast – autotrophic prokaryote that was engulfed by another prokaryote Evidences – Mitochondria and Chlorplasts Double membrane w/ inner membrane that contains an ETC to produce ATP Circular DNA Small Ribosomes Binary Fission

Lab Question

Plants!!

1. Xylem vs. Phloem 2. Function of stomata?
Both Phloem Water and minerals Bulk Flow Sucrose Unidirectional (pulled from leaves to roots) Vascular Tissue Bi-directional (leaves to everywhere in plant) Transpiration Translocation Dead cells Living cells Fast Slower 2. Function of stomata? H2O out (transpiration based on Ψ) O2 out CO2 in

3. Where is ATP produced in a plant cell?
Chloroplast – for Calvin cycle ONLY Mitochondria – for rest of cell 4. Why do root hairs have the shape they do? Increased surface area for absorption of water and nutrients

6. Plant hormones. Name them and their functions!
5. Name a symbiotic relationship that plants have with another organism. Nitrogen fixing bacteria Pollinators Fungi – mycorhizae (further increase the surface area of the roots) 6. Plant hormones. Name them and their functions! Auxin – cell elongation – phototropism and gravitropism Ethylene – fruit ripening and abscission Cytokinins – cytokinesis Anscisic acid – high concentration prevents germination (water dilutes concentration – imbibition) – slows growth

7. How do plants detect light?
Phytochromes – Pr and Pfr in balance during the day Critical length for flowering is night 8. How do plants reproduce? Double Fertilization Egg (n) + sperm (n) = 2n zygote 2 polar nuclei (n and n) + sperm (n) = 3n endosperm (2 sperm per pollen grain)

Animals!!

1. Name an overall function and structural detail for each system below.
Circulatory Digestive Respiratory Excretory Endocrine Immune Nervous

Circulatory - transport Digestive – digestion and absorption of nutrients Respiratory – gas exchange via diffusion Excretory – rid of metabolic wastes – N-containing Endocrine – hormone production - communication Immune – protection from pathogens (non-specific and specific) Nervous – electrochemical communication

Circulatory – blood – hemoglobin – pH 7.4 – buffers Digestive – villi – increased surface area – glucose in for cellular respiration Respiratory – alveoli or gills – folded for increased surface area and moist - O2 in for aerobic cellular respiration, CO2 out – waste product from cellular respiration Excretory – long loop of henle in desert organisms, short loops of henle in freshwater aquatic Endocrine – pancreas – insulin and glucagon Immune – skin, B-cells, T-cells, antibodies, memory cells Nervous – neuron, sensory neuron, interneuron, motorneuron, action potential, sodium potassium pumps, ion channels

2. What is osmoregulation and how do freshwater and saltwater fish deal with it?
Regulation of internal solute concentrations Saltwater fish are more hypoosmotic to the environment so the lose water all the time and therefore constantly drink water and don’t pee. Freshwater fish are hyperosmotic so they constantly take in water from the environment and therefore always pee (ammonia)

3. Compare and contrast a humoral response with a cell mediated response. BE SPECIFIC!!
B-cell response Makes antibodies which trap pathogens for WBC’s to destroy Cell Mediated Cytotoxic T-cell response Attack and kill infected body cells BOTH Activated by helper T-cells and cytokines Both 3rd line of defense – specific response Both create memory cells for faster response upon 2nd exposure

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