1. Monosaccharides: building blocks of carbohydrates
Sugars like to be in ring form
All monosaccharides in foods have the formula C6H12O6
Most sugars are hexoses (form a hexagon ring), but fructose is a pentose
Glucose also called dextrose
Fructose also called fruit sugar

2. Mutarotation = from α to β form
Don’t worry about
Chair conformations
Important for reducing – mutarotation at C1(anomeric carbon) is what allows for reducing powers of sugars
Mutarotation = from α to β form
Only reducing sugars participate in Maillard Browning reactions and give positive result Benedict’s test

3. Disaccharides Disaccharides = 2 monosaccharides
Still considered to be “sugars”
Can be reducing (+ Benedict’s test) or non-reducing
Sucrose = “sugar”
Table sugar, white sugar, confectioner’s sugar…
Lactose = milk sugar
Non-reducing
Reducing
Reducing

4. Polysaccharides
amylose
Polymers (long, repeating chains) of mono- or di-saccharides
Amylose = component of starch (polymer of glucose)
Usually colorless, flavorless, odorless

5. Amino acids: building blocks of Proteins
Always contain one amino group (NH2) and one carboxyl/carboxylic acid group (COOH)
R group determines what the amino acid is called and it’s functionality
20 total amino acids (AA)
9 are essential – not produced by the body (must get from protein in diet)

6. Don’t worry about memorizing these too much – it’s just showing that ALL amino acids contain NH2 and COOH groups, but the R group is what changes.

7. Peptide bonds
Dipeptide = condensation/dehydration reaction (H2O released as product) of 2 amino acids
Tripeptide = 3 AA (2 H2O released)
All proteins are made of peptides

8. Fatty acids: building blocks of lipids
Saturated
Composed of long hydrocarbon (only C’s and H’s) chain and COOH acid head group
In foods, the number of C’s is between 6-20 and is always an EVEN number
Saturated fatty acids have a HIGHER melting point (stay solid until they reach high temperatures)
Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature while saturated fats are solid
Unsaturated

9. Triglyceride
Glycerol backbone with 3 fatty acids attached by ester linkages
Glycerol

10. Formation of triglycerides
Triglycerides can have any 3 fatty acids attached
Saturated and unsaturated in any position
Most abundant form of fat in foods

11. Sterols Form of fat that is not a triglyceride
Less common than triglycerides
Very hydrophobic – mostly C’s and H’s
Campesterol
(in plants)

12. Phospholipids
Similar structure to a triglyceride, but with 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group (PO4-)
Phosphate group is charged, so it is very hydrophilic, but fatty acids are mostly C’s and H’s so they are hydrophobic
Found in cell membranes and emulsifiers

13. Mono- and diglycerides
Have 1 (mono-) or 2 (di-) fatty acids attached
Excellent emulsifiers (hydrophobic character= fatty acid, hydrophilic character= -OH groups)

14. Emulsifiers
Polysorbate 80
Lecithin (phosphitidylcholine)
Lower surface tension – very good at bringing oil and water together
Have non-polar (hydrophobic) and polar (hydrophilic) regions (amphipathic)