1. Chapter 34 From the Modern to the Postmodern and Beyond
Art of the later 20th century

2. Late 20th century:
WWII with global devastation set the stage of the second ½ of the 20th cent
US: Youth culture with protests of Vietnam, radical rejection of national policies-sexual revolution
Counterculture
Feminism
Central issue is POWER-concern for dynamics of power
Art world center shifts from Paris to NYC
The 20th cent time of upheaval- social, psychological, political, physical and economic –great changes & conflicts
Threat of nuclear war very great and the two major nuclear Super Powers (US & Soviet Union) divide the postWWII world into two main spheres
Unrest plagued many countries worldwide (see map fig 34-2); instability in middle east, African nations fighting, etc
American culture seemed to take center stage in latter part of 20th century, Americans questioning the status quo
Struggle for civil rights for African Americans, free speech, protests against Vietnam, rebelling young Americans
Youth culture
POWER: groups sought not to uncover the dynamics of power but to combat actively the inappropriate exercise of power or change of balance of power
Art world shifts focus: shift of western art from Paris to New York
This explains predominance of American artists in the world market –even though artists throughout the world are making art
Only in the closing of the 20th century has the focus shifted to other cultures with an interest in multiculturalism

3. Modernism vs Postmodernism
Clement Greenberg-very influential art critic
CG redefined the parameters of modernism
1970s+ Postmodernism: Cannot be defined as a style, instead a cultural phenomenon
Something for everyone: mix of many styles
Art vs mass culture
Modernism identified with formalism; an emphasis on artworks visual elements rather than its subject
This is primarily due to Clement Greenberg ( ) art critic –he redefined the parameters of modernism
Late 20th cent artists-modernists-were those who refined the critical stance of the late 19th cent & early 20th cent modernists: rejecting illusionism and exploring the properties of each artistic medium; promoted idea of purity in art-strive for focus on each medium and the properties of each
Postmodernism emerged-dramatic developments in the century-CANNOT BE DEFINED AS A STYLE-widespread cultural phenomenon
Rejection of modernist principles-accommodates everything; difficult to define “Something for everyone”
In art: mix of many styles; architecture: same-mix of styles
WWI: largely a European conflict -10 mil dead; WWII global catastrophe: 35 mil dead

4. Francis Bacon, Painting, 1946, oil and pastel on linen, 6’ 5” x 4’ 4” Fig 34-1
British artist Francis Bacon ( ) is compelling & revolting image of a powerful figure who presides over scene of slaughter
Painted in the year after WWII ended –indictment of humanity& reflection of war’s butchery
Man has gaping mouth, red stain on his upper lip, -carnivore: devouring raw meat sitting on the rail around him
Depiction of Nazi leaders: Joseph Goebbels and Heinrich Himmler, Benito Mussolini or Franklin Roosevelt?
Umbrella recalls wartime image of British prime minister who misjudged Hitler & was photographed frequently with an umbrella
Bacon displays flayed flesh like a crucified human form
Visceral impact of this painting strong

5. Alberto Giacometti, Man Pointing, 1947, Bronze no 5 of 6, 5’ 10” x 3’ 1” x 1’ 5” Fig 34-3
Existentialism: a philosophy asserting the absurdity of human existence
Many promoted atheism –Jean Paul Satre; If God does not exist then individuals must constantly struggle in isolation with the anguish of making decisions in a world w/o absolutes or traditional values
Spirit of pessimism and despair
Giacometti ( )-Swiss-his work exemplifies the spirit of existentialism (friends with Satre);
Alienated, lost, solitary figures
He is working from memory not from life; thin virtually featureless figures with rough, agitated surfaces
These do not convey the solidity and mass of conventional bronze figurative sculptures
**This figure seems swallowed up by space-sense of isolation and fragility

6. Jackson Pollock, Number 1, 1950, (Lavender Mist), 1950, oil, enamel, and aluminum paint on canvas, 7’ 3” x 9’ 10” Fig 34-4
Abstract expressionism: First major American avant-garde movement emerged in NY in the 1940s (many artists fled Europe and came to US)
Abstract primarily & express the artist’s state of mind
Many adopted Surrealist’s “psychic automatism” used their creative minds for unconscious channels –turned inward
You have to grasp the meaning of their work intuitively, in a state free from structured thinking
*Gestural abstraction & Chromatic abstraction
Gestural: expressiveness of energetically applied pigment
Chromatic: color’s emotional response
Died early at 44- car accident
**Jackson Pollock ( ) best exemplifies gestural abstraction
He poured, flicked, dripped paint while canvas on the floor- art that is choreographed and spontaneous **the process is important
Lacks well-defined compositional focus

7. Willem de Kooning, Woman 1, 1950-1952, oil on canvas, 6’ 3” x 4’ 10” Fig 34-6
Willem de Kooning ( ); Dutch born, developed abstract expressionism with gestural abstractionist style
Rooted in figurative work, displays the sweeping gestural brushstrokes and energetic application of paint
Ferocious looking woman with staring eyes-toothy smile, seems to be a grimace (inspired by Camel ad)
Female models on ad billboards inspired Woman 1, also suggests fertility –goddess of love: Venus
Process was important as it was also to Pollock
His wife Elaine was also a painter-she says he scraped away 200 images before settling on this one
Gesture painting also called “action” painting

8. Mark Rothko, No 14, 1960, oil on canvas, 9’ 6” x 8’ 9” Fig 34-8
Chromatic abstractionists –quieter aesthetic
Mark Rothko ( ); he deals with universal themes; born in Russia moved to US when he was 10
He believed that references to anything specific in the physical world conflicted with the sublime idea of supernatural “spirit of myth”
He saw this as the meaning of art-compositionally simple –focuses on color
Rectangles of pure color with blurry edges that seem to float on the canvas
In life, these paintings appear as shimmering veils of luminous colors suspended in front of the canvas
He believed color could express all emotions

9. Frank Stella, Mas o Menos, 1964, Metallic powder in acyrlic emulsion on canvas, 9’ 10” x 13’ 8” Fig 34-11
Ellsworth Kelly, Red Blue Green, 1963, oil on canvas, 6’ 11” x 11’ 3” Fig 34-10
Post-painterly abstract expressionism-another Art Movement, developed out of abstract expressionism
Clement Greenberg: applauded this work because it seemed to embody his idea of purity in art; absent is the gestural marks-machine like
“Hard-edge painting”- Kelly-have razor sharp edges & clearly defined shapes
Completely abstract, simple compositions, very 2D
Stella: simplified images of thin, evenly spaced pinstripes on colored grounds have no central focus, no painterly qualities
Not tactile quality, “what you see is what you see” –simply pigment on a flat surface

10. Helen Frankenthaler, Bay Side, 1967, acrylic on canvas, 6’ 2” x 6’ 9” Fig 34-12
Color field painting: post-painterly abstraction, emphasizes paintings basic properties
Rather than sharp, hard edge, color field painters poured diluted paint onto unprimed canvas-colors soak into the fabric
Very flat paintings-appear spontaneous or accidental

11. Louise Nevelson, Tropical Garden II, 1957-1959, wood painted black, 5’ 11” x 10’ 11” Fig 34-17
Minimalism: sculptural movement that emerged in the 1960s, purity in their medium, focus on three dimensionality,
Russian born artist Louise Nevelson ( ), sculpture that combines a sense of the architectural fragment with power of Dada & Surrealism
Found objects express her personal sense of life’s underlying significance
She paints them in a single hue: black, gold or white- monochromatic; creates mysterious shapes and shadows

12. Joseph Beuys, How to explain pictures to a dead hare, 1965, photo of performance art Fig 34-23
Performance art: avant-garde artists in the 1960 sought innovative forms of expression
Movements, gestures, and sounds of persons communicating with an audience, whose members may or may not interact or participate
The only evidence, usually, are the photographs that document the event taken at the time of the performance
Spirit similar to Dada and Surrealism
This is a German artist who had lived through the Crimean war-he was shot down and was kept alive by the Tartar nomads
They wrapped his body in fat and felt to keep him warm; he is using these experiences in this piece by coating his face with gold leaf, taking on the appearance and role of the shaman;

13. Bruce Nauman, The True Artist Helps the World by Revealing Mystic Truths (Window or Wall sign), 1967, neon with glass tubing, 4’ 11” x 4’ 7” Fig 34-26
Nauman (1941) made his artistic presence known in 1960s –abandoned painting and turned to object-making
Work is varied, many sculptural pieces with many types of materials
Conceptual art: this means that the artfulness lies in the artist’s idea, not in the final expression
Some conceptual artists eliminated the object altogether- question what is art and what is the concept?
This was one of Nauman’s first neon sign artworks
He selected neon because he wanted to find a medium that would be indentified with a nonartistic function
**Conceptual art challenges the very premises of artistic production, pushing art’s boundaries to a point where no concrete definition of art is possible

14. Richard Hamilton, Just What Is It That Makes Today’s Homes So Different, So Appealing? 1956, collage, 10” x 9” Fig 34-27
Some avant-garde artists didn’t think that minimalism and abstract works were able to be understood by the public- alienated the public
They wanted art to communicate and they wanted to reach a wide audience (Pop art, Superrealist, Environmental)
**Pop art: reintroduced the all of the artistic devices: signs, symbols, metaphors, allusions, illusions, figurative imagery
Used to convey meaning in art that avant-garde artists had recently purged from their art
Pop art used art grounded in consumer culture, mass media and popular culture **more accessible to the common person**
Pop art is short for “popular art” –began with British artists in the early 50s;
This work characterizes the British pop movement: he shows the way advertising shapes public attitudes
**Commentary about sociey’s values and mass-media meaning

15. Jasper Johns, Flag, , dated on reverse 1954, encaustic, oil and collage on fabric mounted on plywood, 3’ 6” x 5’ Fig 34-28
Jasper Johns (1930) was interested in drawing attention to common objects in the world; things “seen but not looked at”
Several series of targets, flags, numbers and alphabets
The flag is an object looked at but seldom scrutinize
The surface of his work is highly textured due to his multiple media (encaustic is an ancient method of painting with liquid wax & dissolved pigment)
Newspaper scraps embedded into the wax; then paint over them, then more encaustic

16. Robert Rauschenberg, Canyon, 1959, oil, pencil, paper, fabric, metal, cardboard box, printed paper, printed reproductions, photographs, wood, paint tube, mirror on canvas, oil on bald eagle, string and pillow, 6’ 9” x 5’ 10” x 2’ Fig 34-29
Erased de Kooning video referenced in class:
Combing painting and sculpture: Rauschenberg (1925) began using mass media images in his works in the 50s
He set out to create works that would be open and indeterminate; made “combines” –his own personal take on “assemblage”
Which are artworks created from already existing objects
Sometimes the works are paintings with 3D objects attached & sometimes they are sculptures with paintings
Canyon is typical of his combines: very rough surfaces and looks sometimes like a de Kooning
The eye takes in a Rauschenberg as a person would view a walk through the city… many different aspects to see-multiplicity

17. Roy Lichtenstein, Hopeless, 1963, Oil on canvas, 3’ 8” x 3’ 8” Fig 34-30
Pop art: the images became more tightly controlled with the work of Lichtenstein ( )
He excerpts a page out of a comic book – a form of entertainment meant to be read and discarded –he enlarged it to a “monumental” scale
He would select a melodramatic scene common to the romance comic books that were popular at the time
He used “benday dots” –a series of dots that call attention to the mass produced derivation of the image
Benday uses dots to create modulation of color –with placement and size of colored dots
Shows visual shorthand of the comic book

18. Andy Warhol, Green Coca-Cola Bottles, 1962, oil on canvas, 6’ 10” x 4’ 9” Fig 34-41
Andy Warhol is the most well known, quintessential American Pop Artist ( ) –early successful career as a commercial artist & illustrator
This early career made him very well versed in the images of mass media and advertising
In his paintings (such as Green Coca-Cola Bottles) he selects mass-produced, consumer culture images and reproduces them
Consumers are bombarded with images from mass media –Warhol (and other Pop artists) used these images in their works-repetition!
He used silk-screening techniques (a type of printmaking) to repeat his images endlessly (the way we are presented with mass media)
He named his studio “The Factory”

19. Andy Warhol, Marilyn Diptych, 1962, oil, acrylic and silkscreen on canvas, each panel 6’ 8” x 4’ 9” Fig 34-32
Warhol liked to create images of celebrities: Marilyn Monroe-they emphasize the commodity status of the subjects depicted
This was created shortly after the star’s suicide; (Aug ‘62); capitalizing on the media frenzy after her death
Warhol selected a publicity photo of Marilyn –provides no insight into her true self (Norma Jean Baker) and uses it a as a mask
A mask that is a Hollywood myth or persona –garish colors and flat application of color contribute to the masklike quality
Repetition of her face reinforces her status as a consumer product; confronts the American public repeatedly like it did at the time of her death
The right side references film stills
Warhol also ascended into fame; he was able to manipulate mass media and capitalize on his own fame
“Everyone would have fifteen minutes of fame”
He died at age 58 in 1987 –his fame continues

20. More Andy Warhol images:

21. Claes Oldenburg, photo of one person show at the Green Gallery, NY, 1962, Fig 34-33
Pop artist Claes Oldenberg (1929) created sculptures that comment on consumer culture
His early works consisted of plaster reliefs of food and clothing items
Later, he creates large-scale stuffed sculptures “soft” sculptures using canvas or sewn vinyl
Examples of both of these types of works may be seen in this image
Over the years Oldenberg’s works became even more monumental (see following slide)
Along with his wife Coosje van Bruggen (1942) –who sewed most of his works, they created mammoth outdoor sculptures of common objects

22. Claes Oldenburg & Coosje van Bruggen examples:

23. Audrey Flack, Marilyn, 1977, oil over acrylic on canvas, 8’ x 8’ Fig 34-34
Superrealism: artists similar to the pop movement in that they wished to find an accessible way to communicate that was accessible to all
More easy to be understood than the abstract expressionists or the post-painterly abstractionists
Superrealists worked in the 60s & 70s making images that were complete fidelity to optical fact –super realistic
They often used photos in their reference so often they are referred to as “photo realists”
American Audrey Flack (1931) was one of the movement’s pioneers –conceptual inquiries into the nature of photography & the extent to which photography constructs an understanding of reality –everything comes to us via photographs, she said
Usually she created paintings of still lifes
Marilyn comments on the life of Marilyn –references to death (like a Dutch work), burning candle, watch, calendar –references to passing of time

24. Chuck Close, Big Self-Portrait, 1967-1968, acrylic on canvas, 8’ 11” x 6’ 11” x 2” Fig 34-35
American artist Chuck Close (1940) is best known for his large-scale portraits –superrealist movement connection
He does not really think that he is a superrealist because for him realism is the end of an intellectually rigorous systematic approach to painting
He based his paintings in the 60s & 70s on photographs –main goal was to translate information into painted information
He avoided creative compositions, flattering lighting effects or revealing facial expressions –not interested in the personality of the subject

25. Duane Hanson, Supermarket Shopper, 1970, polyester resin and fiberglass polychromed in oil with clothing, steel cart and groceries, life size, Fig 34-36
Superrealist sculpture –Duane Hanson ( ) –he was interested in finding a way to communicate to the public
He created numerous lifelike figurative sculptures
He first made plaster molds from real people, then filled the molds with polyester resin, he then removed the molds and painted the resin
Then he decorated the sculpture with clothes and other accessories
These works show a stereotypical American –average Americans- which were familiar and could be understood by the public (they are familiar) He likes to show lower and middle-class Americans
Viewers often mistake the sculptures for real people when they are first encountered –super realism!

26. Robert Smithson, Spiral Jetty, 1970, black rock, salt crystals, earth, red water (algae) at Great Salt Lake, Utah, 1500’ x 15’ 3’ 6” Fig 34-37
Environmental Art: “Earth art” or “earthworks” –emerged in the 1960s and included wide range of artworks, most site-specific & outdoors
Usually they use natural or organic materials –sometimes land itself
The art form begins out of a concern for the American environment –the ecology movement of the 60s & 70s aimed to combat pollution
Litter, urban sprawl, compromised scenic areas were big issues; NEPA –national environmental protection agency
*Environmental artists use their art to call attention to the landscape to be a part of this national dialogue
This has an avant-garde edge to it; moves art out of the museums; audience participation is often encouraged and a part of their works
Robert Smithson ( ) American, used construction equipment to move and change vast quantities of earth & rock in isolated areas
Spiral Jetty: he drove by this spot and saw abandoned mining equipment, the company was looking for oil and failed and abandoned the site
Smithson saw this as a testament to the enduring power of the earth: humankinds inability to conquer nature
He later created a spiral curving out from the landmass
He discovered that the molecular structure of the salt crystals in the lake that coat the rocks is spiral in form

27. Christo & Jeanne-Claude, Surrounded Islands , Biscayne Bay, Greater Miami, Florida, , pink woven polypropylene fabric, 6 million sq feet, Fig 34-38
Christo & Jeanne-Claude (1935) intensify viewers awareness of space and features of rural and urban sites
Instead of altering land sites, they modify the landscape with cloth
Christo studied art in Bulgaria –moved to Paris and began wrapping items in cloth –creates mystery
1961 Christo and Jeanne-Claude, married, began to collaborate on large-scale projects
Their works usually involve years of planning, meetings with officials and citizens, permits and documentation of each work
The temporary works are usually on display for a few weeks
This work was created in Miami for 2 weeks in May 1983, 11 small scale human-made islands with woven pink fabric
Cost 3.2 million dollars; they sold drawings and models to pay for it

28. Frank Lloyd Wright, Guggenheim Museum, NYC 1943-1959, Fig 34-40 & 34-41
Modernism in architecture: these designers were interested in stressing simplicity
Frank Lloyd Wright described his architecture as “organic” –ended his long career with the design of the Guggenheim
He began to introduce curves in the 1930s and the spiral came next; inside the building the shape of a shell expands towards the top and an interior ramp spirals to connect the gallery bays –these are illuminated by skylights in the walls

29. Le Corbousier, Notre-Dame-du-Haut, Ronchamp, France, 1950-1955, Fig 34-42
Sculptural Architecture: startling organic forms; present viewers with a fusion of architecture & sculpture
A small chapel on a pilgrimage site in the Vosges Mountains to replace a building destroyed in WWII
Intimate scale, stark and heavy walls, mysterious illumination (deep set stained glass windows) –give this space an aura of medieval monastery
Based on underlying mathematical system; fabric was formed from a frame of steel & metal mesh, which was sprayed with concrete & painted white
The roof appears to float freely above the sanctuary- creates feeling of mystery in the interior space
* roof: shape of praying hands, and/or dove, and the prow of a ship “Nave” means ship

30. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe & Philip Johnson, Seagram Building, Manhattan, NYC, 1956-1958, Fig 34-46
Designed for the Seagram Company by van der Rohe & Johnson built with concrete, steel, glass towers –became popular materials at this time
These types of buildings were becoming common sites in urban settings; easily imitated and became the norm for postwar commercial high-rises
Designed as a thin shaft, leaving the front quarter open as a pedestrian plaza,
The building appears to rise on thin stilts, glass walls even surround the recessed lobby
Appears to have a glass skin, interrupted by bronze metal strips anchoring the windows
The two architects designed every facet of the building to make it stunning in night or day

31. Philip Johnson & John Burgee with Simmons Architects, associated architects, a model of the AT&T building, NYC, , Fig 34-49
Post-modernism architecture: rejection of the rigidity of the modern style, postmodern: pluralism, complexity, eclecticism
Many postmodern architects consciously selected past architectural elements or references and juxtaposed them with contemporary elements
**Creates a dialogue with past and present –also referenced mass culture and popular imagery too
This structure was influential in turning architectural taste and practice away from modernism and toward postmodernism
From organic “concrete sculpture” and “rigid glass box” to elaborate shapes, motifs, silhouettes freely adapted from historical styles
Granite building with 30% windows-classic tripartite, arcaded base, arched portal, crowning pediment with orbiculum (disclike opening)
References ancient Greek & Renaissance elevations
Caused much debate with modernists rejecting this style

32. Richard Rogers & Renzo Piano, Georges Pompidou National Center of Art & Culture (The “Beaubourg”) Paris, France, 1977, Fig 34-52
Rogers & Piano joined up to create a building that used motifs & techniques from ordinary industrial buildings
They created the Georges Pompidou center in Paris, this building is known as “Beaubourg”
The anatomy of this 6 level building (opened in 1977) is fully exposed
The architects also made visible the building’s “metabolism” –they color-coded pipes, ducts, tubes & corridors according to function
Red: Movement of people
Green: Water
Blue: Air-conditioning
Yellow: Electricity
Critics called it a “Cultural supermarket” and say that its entrails require excessive maintenance to protect them from the elements
The building has been popular with visitors since it was built
Contains: galleries, conference rooms, library, movie theaters, etc
The area in front of the Beaubourg is usually filled with street performers, tourists, Parisians hanging out

33. Frank Gehry, Guggenheim Museo Bilbao, Bilbao, Spain, Fig 34-54

34. Julian Schnabel, The Walk Home, , oil, plates, copper, bronze, fiberglass, bondo on wood, 9’ 3” x 19’ 4” Fig 34-35
Neo-expressionism: post-modern era movement; the name reflects postmodern artists’ interest in examining earlier art production & this connects this art to the powerful, intense works of the German Expressionists & Abstract Expressionists
American Julian Schnabel (1951) brings back the ideas of the abstract expressionists; he worked in 1980s with a variety of unique materials
He was interested in the physicality of the objects –he often breaks plates and attaches them to his forms
This work recalls the work of the gestural abstractionists–spontaneous drips of Pollock and brushstrokes of de Kooning
Very large scale works, very mosiaclike texture
**Combines painting, mosaic & low relief sculpture

35. Judy Chicago, The Dinner Party, 1979, Multimedia, including ceramics & stitchery, 48’ along each side of triangular installation Fig 34-59
Feminism: in the 1970s the feminist movement focused public attention on the history of women & their place in society
Two women: Miriam Schapiro and Judy Chicago spearheaded the American feminist movement under the Feminist Art Program, Fresno, CA
Chicago wanted to educate viewers about women’s role in history and the fine arts
She aimed to create respect for these women and their art, to create a new art to express women’s experiences & to make it accessible
Inspired by Georgia O’Keefe & Louise Nevelson.
Chicago created a painting style that consciously uses abstract vaginal images
She originally planned to create a Feminist last supper but instead she expanded from 13 to 39 members
The arrangement is a dinner table set with place settings representing these 39 members
The dinner is an allusion to the idea of women as homemakers, 400 workers assisted in the creation and assembly of the artwork
The Dinner Party rests on a white tile floor with 999 names of additional women of achievement

36. Dinner Party continued..
Chicago acknowledged each guest with a place setting of identical eating utensils and a goblet- each has an unique oversized porcelain plate & a placemat or runner with imagery that refers to something about the artist
The runners included traditional needlework-embroidry, crochet, beading, patchwork and applique –traditional “women’s work”
After its completion the Dinner Party was exhibited in the US, Europe, Australia and Canada for nearly a decade
It is now found in the Brooklyn Art Museum, NY

37. Miriam Schapiro, Anatomy of a kimono (section) 1976, fabric and acrylic on canvas, 6’ 8” x 8’ 6” Fig 34-60
Schapiro (1923) is another feminist artist who has tried to rouse in viewers a new appreciation in the beauty of materials & techniques that women artists have used throughout history
She began as a hard-edge painter in the 60s and then she began to create huge sewn collages, assembled from quilts, buttons, lace trim, etc
She called these works “femmages” to make the point that women have been making collages before Picasso did
This is one of a series of monumental works that is based on Japanese kimonos, fans, and robes

38. Cindy Sherman, Untitled Film Still #35, 1979, gelatin silverprint, 10”x 8” Fig 34-61
Often Feminism dealt with the qualities that make women and men different; more recent discussions have gravitated toward the notion of gender as a socially constructed concept –and an unstable one
Identities change and are multifaceted. Feminist issues are more complicated; understanding of gender roles
Cindy Sherman (1954) addresses in her work the way much of Western art has been constructed to present female beauty for the male gaze
This is a primary focus of contemporary feminism: “the male gaze”
She used her own image, self portraits, where she acts and photographs herself as a “film still”
Her series recall popular film genres but they are sufficiently generic so that they are not associated with a specific movie
She is the object of the viewers (male) gaze