1. The Cold War Era and the Emergence of a New Europe
The Western Heritage
Chapter 29

2. The Emergence of the Cold War
President Truman worked to avoid Russian intervention against Japan in World War II. – (partially the reason for the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki?)
America—strongest military in the world but made no attempt to roll back Soviet power in Europe
America’s peacetime goals reflected American ideals and served American interests
USSR wished to expand its borders and influence to ensure its security and pave the way for worldwide domination
From the end of WWI (1945) until communism collapsed in Eastern Europe ( ), the USSR and the US were the 2 nuclear armed superpowers who faced each other in what came to be known as the COLD WAR. This conflict dominated global politics and threatened the peace of Europe. The world was divided between US-dominated NATO and the Soviet-dominated Warsaw Pact.
The Emergence of the Cold War
After WWII, relations became tense even as the war drew to a close. Some scholars attribute this development to Harry Truman becoming president and the US’ possession of the atomic bomb.
Truman was trying to carry Roosevelt’s policies forward who had become distressed by Soviet actions in Eastern Europe. There was a mutual feeling that each had violated previous agreements. The Russians were asserting permanent control of Poland and Romania using puppet communist governments.
The split between East and West arose from basic differences of ideology and interest. The USSR’s attempt to extend its control westward into central Europe and the Balkans and southward into the Middle East was really a continuation of the foreign policy of the tsar. Britain had traditionally tried to restrain Russia expansionism—as Britain’s power waned, the US picked up the mantle.
The US made no attempt to roll back Soviet power where it existed at the close of the war. US military forces were the greatest in its history and its industrial power unmatched, and of course, they had, at least temporarily, the monopoly on atomic power.
In less than a year after WWII, the US forces been reduced from 3.5 million to ½ million—reflecting the domestic pressure to “get the boys home”. This was in accord with its peacetime policy which included support for self-determination, autonomy, and democracy in the political sphere. In the economic sphere the US supported free trade, freedom of the seas, no barriers to investment and an Open Door policy.
The US, at the close of WWII, was the strongest, richest nation in the world with the greatest industrial base and the strongest currency as well.
Main conflict was between US and USSR. In France and Italy, there were large popular communist parties taking orders from Moscow, leading the US to believe Stalin was engaged in a worldwide plot to subvert capitalism and democracy around the world.
To the Soviets, extending their borders and dominating the formally independent states of Eastern Europe would provide needed security and compensate for the tremendous losses they had suffered during the war. They saw the American resistance to their policies as a threat to their security and legitimate aims. The US actions were seen as an effort to undermine regimes that were friendly to Russia and encircle the USSR with hostile neighbors—they could, and did, use this to justify their own efforts to overthrow US friendly regimes in Western Europe and elsewhere.
The mood of postwar hostility was apparent in Feb when Stalin and his foreign minister spoke publicly of the Western democracies as enemies.
In March Churchill’s speech in Fulton, Mo. declared than an “iron curtain” had descended on Europe, dividing a free and democratic West from a totalitarian East. He also warned against communist subversion and urged Western unity and strength against this new menace.

3. Truman’s Containment Policies
containment – resist Soviet expansion in the expectation that the USSR would eventually collapse from internal pressures and the burden of its foreign oppression
Truman Doctrine – US pledged to support free people resisting oppression.
Describe the purpose and policy of containment.
Major departure in American foreign policy, forced the US to enter overseas alliances and undertake enormous military expenditures in order to resist the extension of Soviet influence and domination in the world. The belief was that the USSR would eventually collapse from internal pressures and the burden of its foreign oppression.
Resistance of US and Western Europe to Soviet intransigence and communist plans for subversion and expansion after 1947
Purpose of this American policy—to resist Soviet expansion and influence in belief that USSR would collapse from internal pressures and burdens of its foreign oppression.
Execution of this policy caused the USA to enter overseas alliances, make formal/informal commitments of support, undertake enormous military expeditions, and send large amounts of money abroad.
What was the purpose of the Truman Doctrine?
To support free people who were resisting subjugation from the Soviets or their allies
March 12, President Truman asked Congress to financially support Greece and Turkey—Congress did so
In a speech to Congress, he gave the actions much broader significance—came to be called the “Truman Doctrine”
Advocated a policy of support for “free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures”, by implications all around the world

4. The Marshall Plan Named for Gen. George C. Marshall
Provided broad U.S. economic aid to European states as long as they work together for their mutual benefit.
Restored prosperity to Western Europe.
Discuss the Marshall Plan and its impact. p
American devised the European Recovery Program for Western Europe; believing that as countries suffered from postwar poverty and hunger it would fuel the growth of communist parties
Marshall Plan restored prosperity to Western Europe and set the stage for Europe’s unprecedented postwar economic growth.
Named after George C. Marshall ( )—provided broad economic aid to European states on the condition that they work together for mutual benefits
Impact: the US would exert a relatively permanent influence in Europe. (General Marshall retired to Pinehurst and lived there until his death.)
The Eastern European nations were offered the same aid but they rejected it because they were militarily allied with the Soviet Union and were forbidden by Stalin to participate. The USSR took no help either but amazingly repaired the damage within a decade under Stalin’s 5 year Plans in spite of the terrible toll death and destruction that his country had suffered during WWII.

6. Communists in Eastern Europe
Stalin formed Cominform amongst international communist parties in the effort to spread communism around the globe
after Soviets expelled the democratic government in Czechoslovakia it was clear that there would not be multiparty political systems in Eastern Europe
Why were the Soviets determined to control its Eastern European satellites after 1945?
Western European powers had invaded Russia twice in the 19th century and twice more in the 20th century. The Soviets wanted to control its Eastern European satellites as a buffer against future invasions and out of fear that others would successfully get out of Soviet control as Marshall Tito had done in Yugoslavia. Tito, a WWII hero and communist, refused to follow Soviet directions. He managed to keep his country independent of the USSR until his death.
Czechoslovakia was taken over by USSR in This action led to the formation of NATO—North Atlantic Treaty Organization—an attack on 1 would be considered an attack on all.
In response USSR and Eastern Europe signed the Warsaw Pact. USSR used the Warsaw Pact to strengthen its hold on its allies and put down uprisings in Hungary and Czechoslovakia.

7. The Postwar Division of Germany
USSR dismantled Germany in the east—other Allies favored rebuilding Germany in the west
Berlin Blockade –Russians attempt to take over the capital city of Berlin, by blockading it from the Allies
Failed b/c the Allies airlift supplies into the city
Germany is split into two – the democratic West Germany or German Federal Republic and the communist East Germany or German Democratic Republic
Describe the post-war division of Germany. After the war, some wanted to see Germany dismembered but Churchill feared Russian control of eastern and central Europe and began to oppose dismemberment.
Differences on economic policy: Russians dismantled German industries in eastern zone b/c it feared a strong Germany
US feared chaos and communism sought to make West Germany and other western democracies self-sufficient and so restored their industrial capacity
Germany and Berlin divided into 4 zones
Discuss the Berlin Blockade of 1949 and its results. p. 1043
Soviets tried to remove western powers from Berlin so they sealed the city by closing all railroads and highways leading to Berlin and West Germany
Was a reaction to the unification of the British, French, and American zones into West Germany
Western allies responded by airlifting supplies to Berlin for over a year. Called “Operation Vittles” by the Americans, the planes of the Berlin airlift carried more than 2.3 million tons of food, coal, and supplies. Pilots from the US and Britain flew over Soviet-occupied East Germany to West Berlin. Around the clock, a plane landed every 3 minutes, was unloaded in 17 minutes, and returned to its starting point. The operation was so successful that Berlin’s two airfields could not handle the traffic. United States soldiers and some 17,000 Germans built a third airfield—Europe’s longest—by hand.
“Operation Little Vittles” was the creation of Lt. Gail Halvorsen, who made tiny parachutes from handkerchiefs and dropped parcels of fruit, candy, and gum to German children. During the airlift, Halvorsen and other “candy bombers” delivered 23 tons of candy.
May 1949—Russians were forced to reopen access to Berlin
West Germany became German Federal Republic in Sept. 1949
East Germany became German Democratic Republic in Oct. 1949
Divided Germany and isolated Berlin became central fixtures in the geopolitics of the Cold War until it ended in 1989

8. Show bear transparency
Show bear transparency. Russia forced to back down and reopen access to Berlin—also show GT 33 transparency and read insert about “Operation Vittles”.
Called “Operation Vittles” by the Americans, the planes of the Berlin airlift carried more than 2.3 million tons of food, coal, and supplies. Pilots from the US and Britain flew over Soviet-occupied East Germany to West Berlin. Around the clock. A plane landed every 3 minutes, was unloaded in 17 minutes, and returned to its starting point. The operation was so successful that Berlin’s two airfields could not handle the traffic. United States soldiers and some 17,000 Germans built a third airfield—Europe’s longest—by hand.
“Operation Little Vittles” was the creation of Lieutenant Gail Halvorsen, who made tiny parachutes from handkerchiefs and dropped parcels of fruit, candy, and gum to German children. During the airlift, Halvorsen and other “candy bombers” delivered 23 tons of candy.

9. Gulag Prisoners by Nikolai Getman
Gulag Realism
Accused of drawing an anti-Stalin caricature, Russian artist Nikolai Getman was convicted in a seven-minute trial. He spent the next 8 years in forced-labor camps, where he painted haunting scenes such as this. He survived one of the darkest periods of Soviet history. Upon his release he resumed his career as a painter. Publicly, he was a politically correct painter. However, in secret, he also painted a visual record of what he witnessed in the Gulag. This is one painting from his Gulag Collection. Getman’s work in this area is especially important because there is little documentation of what the Gulag was really like.
How did Getman convey the despair of camp life? What do the men’s faces tell you? What does the piece of bread on the table stand for? How does the artist use color to emphasize his point? (The painting is dark. The men are emaciated from lack of adequate food. The facial expressions show despair. Eating utensils are crude.)

10. The Bolshevik Revolution at first meant greater freedom for Russian artists and writers. “Art must serve politics,” Lenin had insisted, but he generally did not interfere with artistic freedom. Under Stalin, however, the heavy hand of state control gripped the arts. The Soviet government used propaganda, censorship, and terror to establish a totalitarian state. Stalin forced artists and writers to conform to a style called socialist realism. Its goal was to boost socialism by showing Soviet life in a positive light. Artists and writers could criticize the bourgeois past or even, to a limited degree, point out mistakes under communism. Their overall message, though, had to promote hope in the communist future. Popular themes for socialist-realist artists were peasants, workers, heroes of the revolution, and—of course—Stalin. Members of the Communist party and other leaders constituted a powerful new elite. The Soviet government artists and writers to praise the revolution, socialism, and Stalin.
Socialist Realism
Friendship of the People
Bold, heroic images were the trademark of socialist realism. Here, workers and farmers hold aloft the Soviet hammer and sickle. Bright sunbeams suggest a glorious future just ahead.

11. Alliance Systems
the democratic nations of Western Europe along with Canada and the United States form an alliance of mutual assistance known as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
the Council of Mutual Assistance (COMECON), completely controlled by the Soviets, is given formal recognition by the Warsaw Pact, which united the eastern European Communist nations
Cold War takes shape and ends up in flash points in the Middle East, Asia, and North America
Warsaw Pact (1955)-p. 1044
Along with NATO this confirmed the divided status of Europe into opposing unfriendly blocs.
Formed in May, 1955, led by the USSR, was an alternative to NATO
Included Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, as well as USSR
Soviet dominated through local communist parties controlled from Moscow and overawed by the omnipresence of the Red Army
Provided close ties and mutual assistance in case of attack
After 1950 the USSR suppressed movements toward more liberal governments in 1) East Germany, 2) Poland, 3)Czechoslovakia, 4) Hungary
NATO
Formed in April 1949, Consisted of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Great Britain, Italy, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Iceland, Canada, and the USA
Committed its members to mutual assistance in case any of them was attacked

12. A Jewish State is Created
British Balfour Declaration – Arthur Balfour, British Foreign Secretary declares that he favors the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine
Arabs, consider the Jews invaders and violent conflict emerges
The United Nations Resolution – 1947 – the British turn the area over to the United Nations who partition the Palestine area into two (one Arab and one Jewish)
May 14, 1948 – independence of a Jewish state, Israel is declared with the support of U.S. President Harry Truman
first prime minister was David Ben-Gurion
Arab nations; Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Egypt, and Iraq immediately invade Israel but are defeated in 1949, as Israel expands its borders
Cold War implications – United States and Israel become firm allies, while the Soviet Union supports the Arabs
What was the Zionist movement? Who founded it?
Founded by Theodor Herzl p Later led by Chiam Weizman—movement sought to establish an independent Jewish state in Palestine
Discuss the provisions of the Balfour Declaration of 1917.p. 1045—see primary source—Britain favored the establishment of a national home for Jews in Palestine.
Yishuv—The Jewish community in Palestine—during the interwar period it developed its own: 1) political parties 2) press 3) labor unions 4) educational systems—Nazi persecution (1) united Jews throughout the world behind Zionist ideal and (2) touched the conscience of the US and the West.
1947—the British turned the Palestine problem over to the UN
UN Resolution—called for division of Palestine into two states, one Arab, one Jewish
May 1948—British leave Palestine
May 14, 1948—Yishuv declare Israeli independence
May 16, 1948—US recognizes the new nation
By 1949—US—established itself as a firm ally of Israel
USSR—began to aid the Arab nations

13. The Korean War
after World War II, Korea is divided into two; Democratic People’s Republic of Korea to the north supported by the Soviet Union and the Republic of Korea in the south supported by the United States
North Korea invades the South by crossing the 38th parallel separating the countries
A U.N. sponsored action has mainly the United States helping defend South Korea
China helps support North Korea
President Eisenhower declares an armistice ending the war and keeping the borders the same to this very day
Discuss the crisis that led to the Korean War and its outcome.
Between 1910 and 1945, Korea had been occupied and exploited by Japan.
Japan expelled after WWII and Korea divided into 2 parts along the 38th parallel—to be reunited at some point.
By 1948, 2 separate states 1) the Democratic People’s Republic—North—supported by the USSR, and 2) Republic of Korea—South—supported by the US
Late June 1950—North invaded the South across the 38th parallel triggering the US intervention in support of the South—soon had a UN mandate. Technically a police action to halt aggression (UN mandate only possible because Soviet Union ambassador had boycotted the UN when the key vote was taken.
Part of the policy of “containment” for the US.
Late 1950—China sent troops to support North Korea and US troops retreated.
June 16, 1953—Eisenhower administration concluded an armistice ending the Korean War and restoring the border at the 38th parallel. American troops remain stationed in Korea.
Korean War transformed the Cold War into a global rivalry that ranged well beyond Europe.
The formation of NATO and the Korean conflict capped Round 1 of the Cold War.
Late 1955, France, Great Britain, the USSR, and the USA held a summit conference in Geneva. Despite public displays of friendliness, the meeting produced few substantial agreements on major problems. The Cold War resumed.

14. Possible Easing of Cold War Tensions
armistice in Koreas, the death of Stalin, and a summit in Geneva over nuclear weapons and Germany seem to indicate an easing of the Cold War
Geneva meeting provides little agreement and the Cold War soon resumes
Read The Last Years of Stalin p
The Soviet Union had suffered great losses during WWII. Many Russians believed that the end of the war would signal a redirection of the economy away from heavy industry to consumer products. But Stalin did little or nothing to modify the character of the regime he had created. His desire to undertake a new wave of internal purges continued until his death on March 6, 1953.
No single leader replaced Stalin for a time, until power and influence began to devolve on Nikita Khrushchev ( ), who had been named party secretary in Three years later he became premier. His rise ended collective leadership, but he never commanded the extraordinary powers of Stalin. (Recall “We will bury you” speech while he banged on the podium with his shoe.)
In post-WWII Soviet writer Pasternak was not allowed to travel to Stockholm to receive his Nobel Prize for literature for his novel Dr. Zhivago a story set during the Russian Revolution which included critical comments about the 1917 events.

15. The Soviet Union Under Khrushchev
Soviet Communist leader Nikita Khrushchev wanted to keep the dominance of the Communist Party but does reform some of Stalin’s policies
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn allowed to publish a grim account of Soviet labor under Stalin, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1963)
decentralized economic planning and removed restrictions on private cultivations of wheat
The Secret Speech of 1956 – Khrushchev denounces Stalin’s policies and purges and removes Stalin supporters from the government without executing them
Discuss Khrushchev’s “secret speech” of Reform and “de-Stalinization” began in the USSR in 1956 when Khrushchev denounced Stalin’s “cult of personality” in the so-called “secret speech” at the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party. He made an extraordinary departure from expected practice by directly attacking the policies of the Stalin years,, denouncing Stalin’s crimes against socialist justice during the 1930s purges (See primary source document in our text). The speech opened the way for genuine, if limited, internal criticism of the Soviet government. He also gradually removed the strongest supporters of Stalinist polices from the presidium. By 1958, all of Stalin’s former supporters were gone, and none had been executed. His speech had repercussions well beyond the borders of the Soviet Union. Communist leaders in Eastern Europe took it as a signal that they could govern with greater leeway than before and retreat Stalinist policies. While Khrushchev’s own policies failed and he was ousted from power the liberalization that he started would reach full fruition under Gorbachev. The Soviet satellites response to the de-Stalinization program varied, but some were encouraged to openly revolt against Soviet domination.
Read Khrushchev’s Domestic Policies p The Khrushchev Era which lasted until autumn of 1964, witnesses a retreat from Stalinism, though not from authoritarianism. He sought to reform the Soviet system but to maintain the dominance of the Communist Party. Intellectuals were somewhat freer to express their opinions. His economic policy also differed somewhat from Stalin’s, with modest efforts to meet the demand for more consumer goods and decentralize economic planning. In agriculture, he removed many of the more restrictive regulations on private cultivation and sought to expand the area available for wheat cultivation. This plan began with record grain production, but inappropriate farming techniques soon reduced yields. The Soviet Union had to import vast quantities from the US and other countries.

16. The Three Crises of 1956
The Suez Crisis – Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser goes to war with Israel and nationalizes the Suez Canal
the British and French intervene militarily, but the United States refuses to
Soviet Union protest about the military intervention, but also do not intervene
result was Egypt maintains control of the canal, while United States and the Soviet Union show constraint in attempting to avoid war
Polish independent action – Poland refuses Soviet choice for prime minister and put in Wladyslaw Gomulka as Communist leader of Poland / he ends up to be acceptable to the Soviets
Hungarian uprising
new ministry in Hungary led by Imre Nagy, wants to make the country neutral and out of the Warsaw Pact
Soviet troops invade Hungary, execute Nagy and put in Janos Kadar as premier
Describe the events surrounding the Suez Canal Crisis. In 1956 the British and
French intervened in the war between Egypt and Israel in order to seize the Suez
Canal. It resulted in a humiliating diplomatic defeat for Britain and France. The
incident proved that European nations could no longer undertake fully
autonomous actions
Read p Noting 3* factsWho was Wladyslaw Gomulka?—continued Polish membership in the Warsaw Pact and worked to improve Communist relations with the Catholic Church p
Imre Nagy—Read p leader of the Hungarian Communist Party which resisted the Russians in 1956

17. More Cold War Confrontations
the Soviets shoot down a U-2 aircraft that was spying in Russian airspace (1960) – Khrushchev demands apology from President Eisenhower, but does not get one nixing a planned summit between the two world power leaders
The Berlin Wall (1961)– tired of refugees leaving East Germany for free West Berlin, the East Germans and Soviets build a wall separating the two parts of the city – the United States protests, but does little else
Who was Wladyslaw Gomulka?—continued Polish membership in the Warsaw Pact and worked to improve Communist relations with the Catholic Church p
Imre Nagy—Read p leader of the Hungarian Communist Party which resisted the Russians in 1956
Describe what led to the creation of the Berlin Wall. p to halt the stream of refugees from East Berlin into West Berlin—the resolution of the Berlin Wall situation brought the US commitment to West Germany into doubt

18. The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
Fidel Castro topples dictatorship in Cuba and becomes Communist leader
Soviet Union plants missiles in Cuba
in response President John Kennedy – blockades Cuba and demands the removal of the missiles
seemingly at the brink of nuclear war – Khrushchev backs down and the Soviets pull out
Soviet Union and United States sign test ban treaty in 1963
Discuss Fidel Castro’s rise to power. p Cuban revolution brought him to power
The Vienna Summit of 1961 between JFK and Krushchev was focused on nuclear test ban negotiations and the war in Laos. It was followed in the next year by the Cuban missile crisis. Many analysts make a direct connection between the Vienna Summit and the Cuban Crisis because Krushchev left the meeting convinced that JFK was weak and that his presidency provided opportunities for Soviet expansion.
Explain what happened during the Cuban Missile Crisis of P ) undermined Khrushchev’s credibility in the ruling circles of the Soviet Union
2) caused non-European Communist regimes to question the Soviet Union’s
commitment to their security and survival
3) increased the influence of the People’s Republic of China in communist circles 4) was the last major Cold War confrontation that involved Europe and
5) resulted in the humiliation of the Soviet Union
The Soviet desire to reduce the level of international tensions during Krushchev’s era stemmed from his need to strengthen his position within the USSR and avert the disintegration of the Communist bloc in Eastern Europe. Strains were already beginning to show on the domestic scene of the Soviet Union, particularly in the area of consumer goods, as well as in terms of Soviet relations with her satellite state.
What marked the beginning of a reduction in tension between the superpowers? Explain. P Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

19. The Invasion of Czechoslovakia
Russian forces under the orders of Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev, invade Czechoslovakia and take more liberal communist leader Alexander Dubcek out of power
Brezhnev Doctrine – the Soviet Union has the right to interfere in the domestic policies of other communist nations when it feels its necessary
Invasion of Czechoslovakia
In 1968, during what became known as the Prague Spring, the government of Czechoslovakia, under Alexander Dubcek ( ), began to experiment with a more liberal communism. Dubcek expanded freedom of discussion and other intellectual rights at a time when they were being suppressed in the Soviet Union. He was attempting to develop “socialism with a human face”.
Summer 1968—Soviets and Warsaw Pact sent troops into Czechoslovakia and installed communist leaders more to its own liking
Soviet chairman Brezhnev declared the right of the USSR to interfere in the domestic politics of other communist countries—came to be termed the “Brezhnev Doctrine”
Although no further Soviet interventions occurred in Eastern Europe, the invasion showed that political experimentation and liberalization could trigger Soviet military repression (put a damper on any such movement in other countries).

20. Détente with the United States
President Richard Nixon and Brezhnev conclude agreements on trade and reduction of nuclear arms
the United States under President Gerald Ford, along with the Soviet Union and other European nations sign Helsinki Accord recognizing the Soviet sphere of Eastern Europe as long as human rights are protected
President Jimmy Carter demands the Soviets follow the Helsinki Accord, cooling relations between the countries
Soviets pursue activist foreign policy maneuvers in many African nations, Nicaragua, and Vietnam

21. The Invasion of Afghanistan
the Soviet Union wanting more of a presence in the Middle East invades Afghanistan
United States response; second Strategic Arms Agreement not signed, grain embargo of Soviet wheat, boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics, aid sent to Afghan rebels, which included radical Muslims
invasion fails, weakening and demoralizing Soviets

22. Communism in Poland
Pope John Paul II – Polish papal who was an outspoken critic of communism
Protest strikes led by Lech Walesa, occur across the country in response to the rise in meat prices
September 1980 – Polish Communist Party replaced by independent union called Solidarity
1981 – General Wojciech Jaruzelski becomes head of the Communist Party, declares martial law and arrests Solidarity leaders

23. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Relations
Reagan in his first term, intensifies Cold War rhetoric, increases military spending, slows arms limitations, and plans to deploy a Strategic Defense Initiative
Russians in response increase military spending even though they couldn’t afford to eventually bringing the country to economic collapse
Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher aka “the Iron Lady”—contemporary of Ronald Reagan was replaced by John Major.
Women have been the head of state in all of these countries since WWII
1) India—Nehru, 2) Great Britain—Thatcher 3) Pakistan—Buto 4)Israel—Meir
The last advanced Western nation to grant women the right to vote was Switzerland in 1989.

24. Britain’s Withdrawal from India
Indians basically paid for British rule, as Britain dominated the country through a divide and rule strategy
Mohandas Gandhi – leader of Indian nationalism and passive resistance movement
led Salt March to the sea breaking the British monopoly on salt
imprisoned many times, where he became a martyr by going on hunger strikes
1947 – the British weary of Gandhi’s policies leave India
Decolonization: European Retreat from Empire
was the result of American influence and indigenous nationalist movements
pre-1945 roughly 1/3 of the world’s population was subject to the government of a colonial nation
The victories won by the Japanese in the early days of WWII bringing as they did the humiliation of colonial peoples’ former Western masters together with the establishment of puppet—but native governments, was an extremely significant factor in the rise of anti-colonialism.
Post WWII Europe was militarily and economically exhausted
Keeping colonies under control became increasingly ineffective
Examples of Decolonization
Gandhi (tell or show his story) and the Indian Congress
Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam
Nasser’s nationalization of the Suez Canal
The Pan-Arab movement
Major Areas of Colonial Withdrawal
Characterized the second half of the 20th century
Dutch were forced out of the East Indies in 1949
Belgium lost its claim to the Congo (Zaire) in 1960, Mozambique in 1945 and Angola in 1975
France and Britain hit hardest b/c they had the most to lose
India—ruled by Britain since the mid-1700s—Resistance began as early as 1885
Major passive resistance movement led by Gandhi from 1920s to 1940s

25. Conflict Between India and Pakistan
Gandhi’s vision of a country of many religions does not come true
India is partitioned into two; India for the Hindus and Pakistan under Ali Jinnah for the Muslims
Gandhi assassinated by Hindu extremist
East Pakistan later breaks away to become Bangladesh
India and Pakistan have come to the brink of nuclear war over the ownership of the northern territory of Kashmir
British leave in 1947—India splits along Hindu/Muslim lines into Pakistan and India of today (Pakistan split again in 1971 with West Pakistan becoming Bangladesh).
British goals for a stable empire ended with the loss of India. Decolonization soon became widely accepted and some areas such as Ghana and Nigeria were intentionally prepared for the exit of British authority. Recent developments in African states have been marked by poverty and instability with some notable exceptions. Asian colonial states have generally experienced stability and remarkable economic growth.

26. More British Retreat from Colonial Empires
the British noticing the costs of maintaining an empire and wanting to avoid conflict start withdrawing from their colonies
1948 – Burma and Sri Lanka become independent / British withdraw from Palestine
1957 – Ghana becomes independent
1960 – Nigeria becomes independent
British withdraw from Cyprus, Kenya, and Aden under pressure from militant movements
withdrawal has led to poverty and instability in Africa, but stability and economic growth in Asia

27. France and Algeria
voting structure had given the French more power than the native Muslim people of Algeria
violent clashes between the Muslims and the French directly after World War II spur on even more Algerian nationalism
civil war breaks out in 1954 between Algerian nationalists led by the National Liberation Front and the French – the war divides French opinion and does not end till 1962
under General Charles de Gaulle, France eventually grants Algeria independence in 1962
many Muslims who supported France either flee Algeria for France or are massacred

28. France and Vietnam
communist, anti-colonial, and nationalistic Vietnam leader Ho Chi Minh declares Vietnam’s independence from France in 1945
civil war breaks out in 1947
the French are crushed at Dien Bien Phu
peace accord in 1954 splits Vietnam in two
North Vietnam – Ho Chi Minh and the communists
South Vietnam – French controlled
The Turmoil of French Decolonization
France and Algeria
France conquered Algeria in 1830 and eventually made it a department (like one of our states) of France and as such was viewed as an integral part of that nation by the French (obviously the Algerians have a different view). Many French citizens immigrated to Africa—known as pieds noirs, meaning black feet.
May 1945—violent clash between Muslims and French settlers—robbed the French of legitimacy and fired up Algerian nationalism
Algerian nationalists formed the National Liberation Front (FLN) and demanded civic equality—began a civil war in 1954 using guerilla warfare.
General Charles de Gaulle (WWII hero) became president and retreated from Algeria
Algeria became independent on July 5, 1962—the FLN took over under the presidency of Mohammed Ben Bella—most of the French citizens went back to France leaving Algeria in a mess.
France and Vietnam
France occupied Indochina between 1857 and 1893.
1930—Ho Chi Minh organized a nationalist movement to resist the French colonial rule
Sept., 1945—Ho Chi Minh declared the independence of Vietnam under the Viet Minh, a coalition of nationalists that the communists soon dominated. This started a full-fledged civil war in Vietnam.
1954—French military stronghold Dien Bien Phu fell to Viet Minh after a prolonged siege
The Geneva Accords of 1954 divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel latitude. The North, capital in Hanoi, was controlled by Viet Minh, while the South, centered in Saigon, was controlled by France.

29. Vietnam and the Cold War
the United States believing that North Vietnam was a puppet of the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China form the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization to combat the communists
France withdraws from South Vietnam in 1955 leaving Vietnamese political groups to fight for its power
United States supports Ngo Dinh Diem, a strong anti-communist nationalist (but certainly not for democracy)
the National Liberation Front with its military wing the Viet Cong make it a goal to overthrow Diem
Diem becomes more repressive
in 1963, Diem is assassinated by an army coup, supported by the United States
the United States, hoping for popular support in South Vietnam support Nguyen Van Thieu to be in charge
Kennedy is assassinated and his successor Lyndon Johnson steps up the commitment to South Vietnam especially after the an attack on an American ship in the Gulf of Tonkin
Vietnam Drawn into the Cold War
September 1954—USA formed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)SEATO—a collective security agreement that included the US, Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, Pakistan, and the PhilippinesUS supported Ngo Dinh Diem, a strong noncommunist nationalist who had not collaborated with the French
Oct. 1955—Diem established a Republic of Vietnam and announced that his new government was not bound by the Geneva accords
National Liberation Front—founded with the goal of overthrowing Diem, unifying the country, reforming the economy, and ousting the Americans. It was anti-colonial, nationalist, and communist. Its military arm, the Viet Cong was aided by the North Vietnamese government.
Direct US involvement American military presence grew from about 600 people in 1961 to 16,000 in 1963
Nov Diem assassinated (Kennedy soon after)—US hoped that new government would generate popular support
Aug. 1964—President Johnson authorized first bombing of North Vietnam—which continued until Eventually over 500,000 Americans stationed there

30. The Vietnam War 1965-1973 – major bombing attacks of Vietnam
at war’s peak – 500,000 American troops are stationed in Vietnam – 58,000 Americans killed
1969 – Vietnamization – President Nixon’s policy to gradually withdraw troops from Vietnam
peace negotiations start in 1968, but no treaty till 1973
1975 – South Vietnamese troops evacuate country, but are routed by the North Vietnamese turning all of Vietnam over to the communists / South Vietnam capital renamed Ho Chi Minh City
Vietnam’s results in the U.S.
war hurt American prestige,
many European nations felt the United States neglected them to fight an aggressive colonial war
produced enormous divisions and debates in the United States
Describe the process of Vietnamization—policy begun by President Nixon—gradual withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam while the South Vietnamese army took over the full military effort.
Peace negotiations began in Paris and a ceasefire came in Jan. 1973
April 30, 1975—Saigon fell to the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army.
Vietnam conflict produced enormous divisions in America
Who was Ho Chi Minh? P.1058 organized Vietnamese resistance to French colonial rule
What Communist organization claimed political control of Vietnam in 1945? P.1058 Viet Minh—The Vietnam War grew out of a power vacuum left by decolonization, diverted the attention of the US away from Europe, and convinced many Americans born after WWII that the US was trying to keep colonialism alive
What happened to the French at Dien Bien Phu? P.1059 Major defeat for France—1954
What were the Geneva Accords of 1954? P elections were to be held within two years to reunify the country
Who led the opposition to the Diem government? p Vietcong and Buddhist
Why did the USA sanction the overthrow of the Diem regime? p to open the way for a government that would generate popular support

31. Continued Soviet Oppression under Brezhnev
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn expelled from country
harassment of Jewish citizens
dissidents such as Andrei Sakharov, placed in psychiatric hospitals or under house arrest
Détente—p The peaceful coexistence of the Western and Communist blocs—was most actively pursued during the Nixon era. Brezhnev, in the USSR, combined attempts to reach accommodation with the US with continued efforts to expand Soviet influence and maintain soviet leadership of the communist movement. Despite, or maybe because, he was an ardent anti-communist, Nixon used personal diplomacy to improve US relations with not only the USSR but also with Communist China. During the Nixon presidency, the two countries concluded agreements on trade and on reducing strategic arms.
What were the Helsinki Accords of 1975? P During the presidency of Gerald Ford the US and Soviet Union along with other European nations signed the Helsinki Accords recognizing the human rights of the signers’ citizens so it 1)committed the USSR to recognize the human rights of their citizens and 2) in effect recognized the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe

32. The Reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev
economic perestroika – or “restructuring” / reduced size and importance of the centralized economic ministries
advocated private ownership of property and the steering of the economy towards a free market system
economic policies fail as economy remains stagnant
Glasnost or openness- Gorbachev allows criticism of the government, less censorship, free expression encouraged and dissidents released from prison
applied perestroika to government with free elections that elect Gorbachev president in 1989
despite the reforms, Gorbachev is unable to address the complaints of ethnic minorities which split the country
Discuss Reagan’s impact on the Cold War
Relaxed
By the 1980s, the political, economic, and environmental climate in the USSR was precarious. The totalitarian regimes that preceded Gorbachev had 1) allowed environmental problems to proliferate—consequentially health problems were rising for Soviet citizens 2) declining industrial production made it difficult for the Soviets to compete with the West in developing arms and providing its citizens with a level of industrial output to which Western Europeans and Americans were accustomed. 3) This was due in part to an over-centralized economy that provided no incentives for factory managers and industrial entities to become more efficient.
To what does the term perestroika refer? Restructuring of the economy and bureaucracy.
Glasnost-release of dissidents from prison, allowed criticism of government , and allowed national minority demonstrations
In regards to Gorbachev, what was the single most important reason for the Soviet Union’s collapse? Failure to negotiate new arrangements between republics and central government
What was the coup of August 1991? Resulted in Gorbachev’s humiliation and gradual loss of power
Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia were three Baltic states that broke away from the Soviet Union in 1991.
Most significant outcome of the collapse and breakup of the communist government in the USSR and Yugoslavia is that the west’s dream of the collapse of communism has come true. But alas, it has created a fluid and even more dangerous world.

33. 1989: Communism Collapses in Eastern Europe
Poland – Communist government unable to control Solidarity this time, calls for free elections where communist leader Jaruzelski is roundly defeated and appoints a non-communist prime minister
Hungary – Kadar stripped of his power as communist leader and Hungarian Communist Party is replaced by Socialist Party, which promises free elections
Germany –old communists in power resign, East German government orders opening of Berlin Wall and within days Germany is reunited under one leader, Helmut Kohl (unification recognized by world in early 1990)
Czechoslovakia – Vaclav Havel’s supporters known as the Civic Forum force communist leader Gustav Husak out of power and elect Havel as president
Romania – the only violent revolution where communist leader Nicolae Ceausescu fires on opposition crowds, but later is overthrown and along with his wife executed
the mainly peaceful conclusions to these revolutions may have been a reaction to the Tiananmen Square Massacre in the People’s Republic of China, where the communists responded to protests violently
Describe the Solidarity movement of Poland. Worked for free trade
1980—began to challenge the authority of the Polish communist Party and the influence of the USSR
Poland suffered from economic mismanagement and food shortages for 25 yrs
Karol Krakow—outspoken opponent of communism elected pope—1979
July 1980—gov’t raised meat prices—protesters occupy the Lenin shipyard and Gdansk on Aug. 14
Gdansk strike ended on Aug. 31 when the government promised workers the right to organize an independent union called SOLIDARITY—recognized by the Polish courts
1981—General Wojciech Jaruzelski became head of the Polish Communist Party and imposed martial law via the army in December—Solidarity leaders arrested—continued until late 1983—but could not solve Poland’s major economic problems

34. Soviet Response to Revolution
Gorbachev renounces Brezhnev Doctrine and refuses to interfere on the behalf of the communists in Eastern Europe
troops withdrawn from Eastern Europe haphazardly
How did Jimmy Carter react to the Soviet Union invasion of Afghanistan? P. 1064
1979—USSR invaded Afghanistan to ensure its influence in central Asia and to support a client Afghan government
Sharp response from US—embargo placed on grain shipments to USSR
President Carter boycotts the 1980 Olympics held in Russia
US also sends aid to the Afghan rebels via third parties as did several Islamic nations and China
Afghans killed nearly 2000 Soviet troops a year—inflicted many causalities
B/c of censored press few in Soviet Union knew for long time but eventually the military failure became known
Demoralizing defeat—often called their Vietnam

35. The Soviet Union Collapses
Gorbachev announces the Soviet Communist Party has abandoned its monopoly on power
1990 – three major political groups vie for power
conservatives – wanted to keep Communist Party and Soviet army
reformers – led by Gorbachev critic Boris Yeltsin (later elected president of Russian Republic) – wanted to move quickly to a market economy and democracy
nationalists – some republics in the Soviet Union wanted independence / Gorbachev fails to make new constitutional arrangements with these places leading directly to the rapid collapse of the Soviet Union
1991 – The August 1991 Coup – communists attempting to seize power, place Gorbachev under house arrest
coup fails within two days because of Boris Yeltsin’s followers
Gorbachev returns to Moscow humiliated by his own followers
Yeltsin steadily takes control of government
Soviet Union collapses in December, 1991 as Gorbachev leaves office and the Commonwealth of Independent States appears
Soviet Union broken up into fifteen constituent republics, in which eleven are part of the Commonwealth of Independent States

36. Russia under Yeltsin and Putin
Yeltsin’s troubled reign
Yeltsin supported by the West puts down Parliament protest that attempts to overthrow him
new Parliament and constitution voted on in 1993
Russia at war with Islamic province of Chechnya still to this day
economic downturn due to corruption by the “oligarchs”, defaults on international debts and political assassinations
Yeltsin resigns in 1998 and is replaced by Vladimir Putin
more trouble with Chechnya as Putin renews war and spawns a major act of terrorism in which Chechans take over an elementary school, take 1,200 hostages and eventually when confronted by troops kill 330 people, mostly children
Putin in response centralizes power more
Russia today
Putin’s Russia still more democratic than the Soviets even with his concentration of power
corruption and violent crime on the rise
economy stagnant, social and educational systems in decay
life expectancy declining

37. Civil War and the Collapse of Yugoslavia
Yugoslav leader Tito keeps the many different ethnic and national groups under control – his death eventually leads the country into chaos and civil war
Nationalist leaders Slobodan Milosevic in Serbia and Franjo Tudjman in Croatia gain authority
1991 – Slovenia and Croatia declare independence from Yugoslavia
civil war erupts in 1992 between Serbs and Croatians
Serbia accuses Croatia of fascism / while Croatia accuses Serbia of being a Stalinist regime
both forces attempt to divide up Bosnia-Herzegovina
Muslims in Bosnia are caught in the middle and are subject to “ethnic cleansing” by the Serbs
NATO led by the United States does strategic bombing of Serbia to remove the Serbs from Sarajevo
1995 – peace agreement signed in 1995 in Dayton, Ohio
Serbs again force NATO into action by attacking Albanians in Kosovo in 1999
an air campaign – the largest since World War II – is sent to protect the ethnic Albanians
2000 – revolution overthrows Milosevic

38. Arab Nationalism
Radical Islamism rose in reaction to secular Arab nationalism of the 1920’s and 1930’s
Radical Islamists reject Western ideals and culture
Middle Eastern Arab countries become rich off oil
the Saudi royal family turns education over the rigorist form of Islam known as Wahhabism, while modernizing its infrastructure
Egypt pitted Islamic groups against one another
Poor Arabs remain poor while religious leaders remained hostile to the Soviet Union

39. The Iranian Revolution of 1979
led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, revolutionary leaders overthrow a modern, but repressive government supported by the United States and turn Iran into a theocracy, a government controlled by religion
Revolution embodied Islamic fundamentalism or Muslim reformism
Iran considered the United States to be “The Great Satan” and opposed the state of Israel on religious and nationalist grounds

40. Afghanistan and Radical Islamism
The Taliban – rigorist Muslims who impose Muslim law through the strict regimentation of women, public executions, floggings, and mutilations for a variety of criminal, religious or moral offenses
Al Qaeda – groups of Muslim terrorists supported by the Taliban
ideology came from Pakistan, which taught madrasas – the rejection of liberal and secular views, intolerance towards non-Muslims, repudiation of Western culture, and hostility and hatred towards the United States and Israel

41. Jihad Against the United States
Arabs redirect their jihad (religious war) from the Soviet Union to the United States especially after the Persian Gulf War of 1991
the United States drives Iraq under Saddam Hussein out of Kuwait with the support of conservative Arab governments such as Saudi Arabia
Islamic extremist leader Osama Bin Laden is horrified that the United States is allowed to have their military in Saudi Arabia, home of Islam’s two holiest cities Mecca and Medina
terrorist attacks on United States citizens
World Trade Center Bombing – 1993
U.S. army barracks bombed in Saudi Arabia – 1996
U.S. embassies in East Africa bombed – 1998
attack on the ship USS Cole in Yemen – 2000
9/11/2001 – attacks on New York City and Washington D.C. leave more than 3,000 dead

42. The 9/11 Response and War in Iraq
U.S. President George W. Bush responds to 9/11 by attacking the Taliban in Afghanistan / Taliban defeated, but Al Qaeda and Bin Laden still in hiding and intact
Bush preemptively attacks Iraq citing dangers to the United States, sparks controversy at home and abroad
United States and Great Britain and token support of fifty other nations invade Iraq in March 2003
Iraqi government collapses and Saddam Hussein is eventually captured
invasion sparks opposition from France, Germany, Russia and many other nations splitting the European Union and directed hostility from European citizens to the United States
many anti-war protesters in the United States, due to the never found weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)

44. Recent Events in Europe and United States
Terrorist attacks in Spain (2004) and London (2005)
Bush re-elected President in 2004 and Iraq has first free elections since the 1950s in 2005
Britain re-elects Tony Blair as prime minister, but with a much reduced parliamentary majority