1. Chapter 15: Early Modern Muslim Empires

2. The Gunpowder Empires 13th c. Mongol invasions destroyed Muslim unity
3 new Muslim empires emerge; new growth of Islamic civilization
Ottomans ( , Sunni)
Safavids ( , Shi’a)
Mughals( , Sunni)
“Gunpowder empires” refers to empires formed by outside conquerors who unified the regions they conquered. As the names suggests, such an empire’s success was based largely on the mastery of the technology of firearms

3. The Gunpowder Empires Similarities Differences
Originate from Turkish nomadic cultures
Great military and political powers; effective use of gunpowder
Islamic Renaissance
Spread of Islam to new territories; religious zeal
Ruled by absolute monarchs
Taxed agrarian populations
Differences
Mughals: rule mostly non-Muslims (Hindus in India)
Safavids: rule mostly Muslims (Shi’a)
Ottomans: rule mixture of Muslims (Sunni) and Christians
Islamic Renaissance sees a drop in sciences, but an increase in art/architecture

4. The Ottoman Rise 1243 CE: Seljuk Turks fell to the Mongols.
1258 – 1335: Ilkhan Empire
1350s: Sunni Ottomans began building an empire based in Anatolia, Turkey.
Named after Osman Bey, leader
Rapidly expand territory into Balkans and surrounding area
1453: Mehmed II leads the Ottomans to conquer Constantinople with 100,000 soldiers.
Collapse of Byzantine Empire
Extended empire into Syria, Egypt, north Africa, Hungary, Black and Red Seas.
Powerful army: built up firearms, cannons
Threat to Western Europe: 16th/17th c. sieges on Vienna, Austria
In the late 13th c. a new group of Turks, under their leader OSMAN, began to build power in the Anatolian Peninsula. This land had been given to them by the Seljuk Turks for their help in defending the land against the Mongols previously. At first, the Osman Turks were peaceful and engaged in pastoral activities. However, as the Selku Turks declined, they began to expand. Fall of Seljuk Turks opens way for Ottomans to seize power.
From their location in the northwest corner of the peninsula, the Ottomans expanded westward and eventually controlled the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, two straights that gave them a direct path to the Mediterranean Sea.
Under the leadership of Mehmed II, the Ottomans moved to end the Byzantiane Empire. With between k soldiers, Mehmed laid seig to Constantinople. The attack began on April 6, The Byzantianes fought desperetly for their city for almost two months, finally on May 29, the walls were breached and the Ottoman soldiers poured into the city. The Byzanitine emperor died in the final battle and a great three day sack of the city began. When Mehmed saw the destruction of the city, he was filled with regret and lamented, “What a city we have given over to plunder and destruction.”
Ottomans would soon cover the majority of the Muslim world/ thanks to their new capital, they now dominated the Balkans and the Anatolian Peninsula. From approx , Sultan Selim I took control of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Arabia. Selim declared himself the new caliph—defender of the faith and successor to Muhammad.

5. Height of Ottoman Empire
Suleyman is 10th + longest reigning Ottoman sultan
Known for growth under his rule

6. Ottoman Military: Janissaries
Ottomans were focused on warfare; desired to create a class of warriors that were loyal to Sultan only
Janissaries were captured conscripted Christian boys that made up the bulk of the Ottoman infantry
Legal slaves
Highly educated and placed with Ottoman families to be converted to Islam
Selection process: devshirme
Janissaries controlled the artillery and firearms so they were the most powerful component of the military.
Ultimately, would block much needed reform as empire began to decline
Tried to translate military service into political influence.
Janissaries were from Balkans (Greek Orthodox region) Young Christian boys chosen because of their appearance and physical build. The policy of recruiting jannissaries lasted until the 1600s, and by that point new recruits were the sons of the original janissaries, and forces became less disciplines.
Devshirme: boys are 7-10 years old, sometimes locally resented (disfigured boys), other times families bribed scouts to take their sons so they would achieve grand status
Imperial armies are increasingly dominated by divisions of Janissaries
Janissaries became very conservative and involved at court, they often intervened in succession disputes
By 1826, the janissary force had grown so large and powerful that the sultan was forced to massacre all its members. The decline of the janissaries would correspond with eh decline of the Ottoman empire

7. Ottoman Military: Navy
Ottoman internal military problems led them to fall behind in improvements to military.
Ottoman navy was powerful until Battle of Lepanto (1571)
Signaled end of Ottoman naval dominance
Tried to rebuild fleet a year after battle
Portuguese naval victories in Indian Ocean weaken Ottoman presence in Indian Ocean trade.
Ottomans fell behind in technology by ignoring Western technological innovations.
Ottoman military was eclipsed by European naval powers in the 16th century
Many scientific transformations in Europe, and Ottomans are uninterested in them, inherited the Arab Abbasid belief that what happened in Europe was of little importance  often cited as large reason for Ottoman decline

8. Quick Review Question Ottomans expanded into which regions?
What were Janissaries and how were they used?
Most of Arab world: northern Africa, Mediterranean, Arab Peninsula, up into SE Europe
Conscripted boys who were adopted into the Ottoman military and placed in charge of artillery

9. Ottoman Sultans and Their Court
Absolute monarchs (sultans) who were skilled at controlling different religious and legal factions.
Ottoman conquest often meant effective administration and tax relief for areas annexed to the empire.
As the empire grew, sultans lost contact with their subjects.
Administration was carried out by a grand vizier and bureaucracy.
Islamic principles of succession were problematic.
Sunni model means it is unclear
Sultans were supported by scholars, advisors
Ottoman Empire is comprised of Muslims, Christians, Jews – sultans must rule a diverse population
Those conquered by the Ottomans enter into the organization of Ottoman Empire
Sultans spent money on palaces, gardens, wives, concubines
Grand vizier took care of day to day administration and heads large bureaucracy, often more actual power than the sultan
Death of the sultans often led to civil war. A son, though not always the eldest, succeeded the father. Losers of the civil wars were often executed.

10. The Flourishing of Ottoman Culture
Ottomans restored capital of Constantinople.
Each Sultan tried to beautify the capital.
Sultans and administrators built mansion, religious schools, hospitals, rest houses, gardens.
Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque.
Commercial center: great bazaars
Merchant and artisan classes
Turkish, then Persian, Arabic
Renaissance period of poetry, ceramics, carpets, architecture
Desire to restore glory in the reconstruction of Constantinople
Commerce: trade spices, slaves, ivory, wood, carpet, tobacco from Asia, Africa, Europe
Merchant/artisan classes: create guilds, central to cultural production
Turkish was the language of the court and poetry
Persian and Arabic were the language of law and religion
The Ottoman sultans were enthusiastic patrons of the arts. The period from Mehmet II to the early eighteenth century witnessed a flourishing production of pottery; rugs, silk, and other textiles; jewelry; and arms and armor. All of these adorned the palaces of the rulers. Artists came from all over the world to compete for the generous rewards of the sultans. By far the greatest contribution of the Ottoman Empire to world art was in architecture, especially the magnificent mosques of the last half of the sixteenth century. The Ottoman Turks modeled their mosques on the open floor plan of Constantinople’s Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia, creating a prayer hall with an open central area under one large dome.

11. In the mid-sixteenth century, the greatest of all Ottoman architects, Sinan, began building the first of his 81 mosques. One of Sinan’s masterpieces was the Suleimaniye Mosque in Istanbul. Each of his mosques was topped by an imposing dome, and often the entire building was framed with four towers, or minarets. The sixteenth century also witnessed the flourishing of textiles and rugs. The Byzantine emperor Justinian had introduced silk cultivation to the West in the sixth century. Under the Ottomans the silk industry resurfaced. Factories produced silks for wall hangings, sofa covers, and especially court costumes. Rugs were a peasant industry. The rugs, made of wool and cotton in villages from different regions, each boasted their own distinctive designs and color schemes.

12. Ottoman Society and Gender
Socially dominated by warrior aristocracies who originated as Turkish horsemen.
Ottoman sultans promoted public works projects, the arts, and promoted trade.
Ottoman women faced legal and social disadvantages.
Unable to become educated or participate in politics
Elite wives and concubines exerted influences over sultans, but most women lived unenviable lives
Subordinate to husbands and fathers
Many restricted to harems
Warrior aristocracies enjoyed prestige, share power with sultans
Arts: rugs, weapons, paintings
Disadvantages: subordinate to men, religious seclusion..however, women could inherit property..they could not be forced into marriage, and in certain circumstances, were permitted to seek divorce.
Elite women: palace conspiracies
The subjects of the Ottoman Empire were divided by occupation. In addition to the ruling class, there were four main occupational groups: peasants, artisans, merchants, and pastoral peoples. Peasants farmed land that was leased to them by the state. Ultimate ownership of all land resided with the sultan. Artisans were organized according to craft guilds. Each guild provided financial services, social security, and training to its members. Outside the ruling elite, merchants were the most privileged class in Ottoman society. They were largely exempt from government regulations and taxes and were able, in many cases, to amass large fortunes. Pastoral peoples — nomadic herders — were placed in a separate group with their own regulations and laws. Technically, women in the Ottoman Empire were subject to the same restrictions as women in other Muslim societies, but their position was somewhat better. As applied in the Ottoman Empire, Islamic law was more tolerant in defining the legal position of women. This relatively tolerant attitude was probably due to traditions among the Turkish peoples, which regarded women as almost equal to men. Women were allowed to own and inherit property. They could not be forced into marriage and, in certain cases, were permitted to seek divorce. Women often gained considerable power within the palace. In a few instances, women even served as senior officials, such as governors of provinces.

13. Ottoman Decline
Empire lasted for over 600 years ( ) during which time the Ottomans were able to fight off many rivals.
Survive for so long in large part because of European rivalries that distracted Europeans
Janissaries are conservative and traditional; resistant to Westernized reforms
Ultimately, the empire was too large to maintain.
Unable to expand against other Muslim and Christian groups
The effectiveness of the administration diminished as the bureaucracy became corrupt.
Local officials squeezed peasants for taxes and services.
Officials become corrupt
Peasant uprisings and abandonment of lands
Silver from Peru and Mexico led to inflation
Civil strife increased
Ottomans are the longest-lasting dynasty in history
Difficult to keep oversized bureaucracy and army (this was the downfall of Rome and the Mongols)
Later sultans are no more than weak rulers, addicted to alcohol and drugs, and harem lifestyles
Major changes in Europe could not be matched by Ottomans; Janissaries and religious leaders were intensely conservative and blocked Western-inspired innovation
The Ottoman Empire reached its high point under Süleyman the Magnificent, who ruled from 1520 to It may also have been during Süleyman’s rule that problems began to occur, however. Having exe-cuted his two most able sons on suspicion of treason, Süleyman was succeeded by his only surviving son, Selim II. The problems of the Ottoman Empire did not become visible until 1699, when the empire began to lose some of its territory. However, signs of internal disintegration had already appeared at the beginning of the 1600s. After the death of Süleyman, sultans became less involved in government and allowed their ministers to exercise more power. The training of officials declined, and senior positions were increasingly assigned to the sons or daughters of elites. Members of the elite soon formed a privileged group seeking wealth and power. The central bureaucracy lost its links with rural areas. As a result, local officials grew corrupt, and taxes rose. Constant wars depleted the imperial treasury. Corruption and palace intrigue grew. Another sign of change within the empire was the exchange of Western and Ottoman ideas and cus-toms. Officials and merchants began to imitate the habits and lifestyles of Europeans. They wore Euro-pean clothes and bought Western furniture and art objects. Europeans borrowed Ottoman military tech-nology and decorated their homes with tiles, tulips, pottery, and rugs. During the sixteenth and seven-teenth centuries, coffee was introduced to Ottoman society and spread to Europe. Some sultans attempted to counter these trends. One sultan in the early seventeenth century issued a decree outlawing both coffee and tobacco. He even began to patrol the streets of Constantinople at night. If he caught any of his subjects in immoral or illegal acts, he had them immediately executed.

14. Quick Review Question Describe Ottoman rule. What is it like?
Describe Ottoman culture.
Sultan; grand vizier; bureaucracy (centralized power, organized large and diverse community)
Ottoman culture: arts and architecture; Persian/Turkish/Arabic
Page 464 homework

15. The Shi’a Safavids
Rose from Turkic nomadic groups after Mongol invasions.
Practice Shi’a Islam
Sail al-Din, Shi’ite Sufi mystic, began a militant campaign to purify and reform Islam
Spread Shi’a Islam throughout Turkish tribes of region (Persia and Afghanistan)
Goal= restore Persia as major center of political power and cultural creativity
Gains Shi’a support but Sunni enemies

16. Isma’il and the Battle of Chaldiran
1501: Isma’il won territory victories and was declared shah (emperor) of Safavid Empire.
1514: Battle of Chaldiran
Conflict with Ottoman Empire and Ottoman victory
Shi’ism was blocked from westward advancement
Isma’il: new leader, first shah of Safavids
Battle of Chaldiran: Ottomans vs. Safavids (Sunni vs. Shi’a)
Ottomans win but cannot soundly defeat Safavids
Isma’il devastated by loss

17. Politics and Culture Under Abbas the Great
1587 CE- Abbas I (Abbas the Great), empire reached height of its strength and prosperity
Used youths captured in Russia, educated and converted to Islam, in the army and bureaucracy
Controlled firearm use
Received training from Europeans in efforts against Ottomans
Abbas I wanted empire to be center for international trade and Islamic culture
Creates capital in Isfahan
Special building projects (elaborate palaces for shahs; mosques)
Used Russian youths similar to how Ottomans used Janissaries
Abbas I tried to strengthen Safavid armies after defeat by Ottomans
Training from Europeans (especially cannon training)
Internal transport conditions for trade were improved; workshops created, encouraged to trade

18. Safavid Culture
Originally used Turkish but switched to Persian after Battle of Chaldiran
Mullahs (educated in Islamic theology and law) were used as mosque officials, pray leaders and bureaucrats.
Indicates move away from militant Shi’a ideology
Bulk of Iranian population was converted to Shi’ism
Mosques were sites of opulent rituals (brightly colored, domes, gardens, pools, geometric designs)
Language switch comes from desire to distance Safavids from Ottomans

19. The Rapid Demise of the Safavid Empire
Safavids reigned from
The collapse was rapid.
Abbas I, fearing assassinations, removed all suitable heirs.
Weak grandsons followed; led to decline.
Imperial administration collapsed.
1722: Isfahan fell to Afghani invaders.
Nadir Khan Afshar from northern Persia declared himself shah in 1736.
Unable to restore long-lasting authority.
Factional disputes and rebellions took place also

20. Quick Review Question What type of Islam do Safavids practice?
What is the Battle of Chaldiran?
What does Abbas the Great focus upon?
Shi’ism
Battle between Ottomans and Safavids over Mediterannean
Internal improvements and military improvements

22. The Mughals in India Founded by Babur in 1528
Traced his lineage back to Turkic conqueror Timur the Lame
Used gunpowder and military strategies to assert power over rivals in northern India.
More interested in territorial expansion and riches than spreading of Islam.
Interested in art and war, but a poor administrative leader
Sudden death in 1530; successor is son Humayan.
Invasions in time of weakness
Humayan dies in 1556; leaves empire to Akbar.
Pronounced Mo-gals
Under Mughals, Islam reached peak in South Asian history
Babur conquered much of India in 2 years. As a teenager, he had conqured Kabul in 1504, and thirteen years later his troops crossed the Khyber pass to India.
Babur’s death symbolized weakness

23. Akbar and the Basis for a Lasting Empire
Akbar rules
Comes to throne during period of invasions.
Akbar had a vision for the empire and wanted to unite all of India.
Extended the empire throughout north and central India.
Brilliant military leader
Used warrior aristocrats to run villages in newly established bureaucracy.
Administrative talents
Comes to power when he is only 14
Good military commander, slept 3 hours a night, was illiterate
His military successes were due to using heavy artillery to overpower his foes.
Created an administrative system that formed the backbone of the Mughals
Granted villages for supports; uses peasants to support military

24. Akbar’s Social Reform and Cultural Change
Encouraged widow remarriage; discouraged child marriages; legally prohibited sati; special market days.
Encouraged good relationships and intermarriages between Muslims and Hindus.
Respected Hindu customs
Utilize Hindus in bureaucracy
Great patron of arts
Invented a new faith: Din-i-Ilahi
Incorporates Islam and Hinduism to unify subjects
Mughal India reached its peak at the end of Akbar’s reign and was an overseas destination for traders.
Akbar is known as a humane ruler. He was progressive, all peasants paid a 1/3 tax of their harvest to the state, that was suspended or reduced if the weather had been unfavorable to farming. Trade and manufacturing flourished.
Sati – burning of high-caste women on husband’s funeral pyre (still occurs in some parts of India, even tho there is a law against it)
He tolerated other religions, one of his wives was Hindu and he welcomed Christian Jesuits as advisers. Abolished dhimmi tax; ordered Muslims to respect cows
Din-i-Ilahi: believed that this will continue to unite Hindus and Muslims; never has more than 19 followers. It was comprised of mostly Hindu and Muslim beliefs, but included aspects of Christianity, Sihkism, Janism, and Zorastrinism
Promoted cotton/textile trade
Akbar left Mughal India at its peak: however, India had fallen behind Europe in innovation and sciences…most of his reforms did not work

25. Quick Review Question List some of the accomplishments of Akbar.
What is his primary social goal?
Promote trade
Primary social goal – unification between Hindus and Muslims

26. Mughal Splendor
After Akbar’s death in 1605, Jahangir ( ) and Shah Jahan ( ) reigned.
Both retained tolerance toward Hindus, kept alliances, and fought wars against enemies.
Both great patrons of the arts.
Famous for cotton textiles and have a large market in Europe.
Little new territory added.
Majority of population in poverty
India fell behind Europe in innovations and sciences.
Jahangir and Shah Jahan – kept political structure from Akbar, but make no innovations to fix problems. They failed to deal with growing domestic problems, and raised taxes to pay for wars and building projects.
Each ruler was interested in the “good life”; drink, dancers, gardens, polo matches, tiger/elephant fights, life-size pachisi with dancers

27. Mughal Art and Architecture
Mughal architecture blends Persian and Hindu traditions.
Painting workshops for miniatures.
Mughal architecture: mix of traditional Indian white marble with Islamic arches and domes.
Taj Mahal: constructed by Shah Jahan as tomb for Mumtaz Mahal, his most beloved wife.
Mughals considered one of the peaks in Indian cultural production.

28. Mughal Mistakes
Jahangir and Shah Jahan left the administration to subordinates; thus, their wives took control of decisions.
Elsewhere, women became more secluded; reforms of Akbar die out.
Aurangzeb, Shah Jahan’s son, came to power with two foolish goals:
Determined to extend Mughal control over all India.
Wanted to purify Indian Islam and rid it of Hinduism
Jahangir’s wife packed court with relatives, died giving birth to 19th child
Child marriage popular, age limit lowered to 9, seclusion of women enforced, sati spread
Goal 1: foolish because empire was threatened by internal decay and growing dangers from external enemies; no ample funds to expand with
Goal 2: Proved disastrous to his goals to unify/strengthen the empire

29. Imperial Decline Video
By the time of his death (1707), Aurangzeb conquered most of India but drained treasury protecting borders.
Became involved in long wars and failed to complete administrative tasks and reforms.
His religious policies weakened internal alliances with Hindus.
Social progress had been abandoned and halted.
Britain and France grow increasingly interested in India as a colony.
Central government declines; India returns to local governments by 18th c.
Sikhs became an anti-Muslim threat.
Empire was far larger than it had been under any of the earlier emperors, but it was also more unstable
Desires to strengthen Islam weakened relationships with Hindus, Hindus were kept from highest political posts, dhimmi tax restored
British trading posts were established in present day Calcutta and Madras by By the late 18th c, the East India Company (a private company, but empowered by the british crown) moved inland from it’s coastal strongholds. This made the British very rich, and they refused to leave India.
Rise of new sects like Sikhism tried to bridge the difference between Hindus and Muslims
Sikhs believed in reincarnation, soul needs to be united with God, lifestyle of moderation
Video

30. Quick Review Question
What are some of the accomplishments of Jahangir and Shah Jahan?
What does Aurangzeb do that causes a weakening of the Mughal Empire?
Maintain strengths from Akbar; trade thrives
Expansion and attempted elimination of Hinduism

31. Ottomans Safavids Moguls
Warfare
Train janissaries
Conquer Constantinople
Battle Ottomans
Ally with European states
Conquer India
Battle Persians and British
Arts
Make magnificent mosques, pottery, rugs, and jewelry
Blend Persian & Turkish influences
Excel at carpet making and painting
Combine Persian & Indian motifs
Excel at architecture & painting
Government
The sultan governs through local rulers called pashas
The shah trains administrators
The emperor controls semi-independent states
Trade
Merchants are the privileged class
Geography limits trade
Trade with Europeans
Religion
Sunni Muslim
Religious tolerance
Shiite Muslim
Religious orthodoxy
Muslim, Hindu
Women
Social restrictions
Can own land, inherit property, seek divorce, and hold senior government posts
Are kept secluded & made to wear veils
Some social restrictions
Serve as warriors, landowners, political advisers, and businesspeople