1. Intelligence

2. AP EXAM Intelligence (5–7%)
An understanding of intelligence and assessment of individual differences is
highlighted in this portion of the course. Students must understand issues related to
test construction and fair use.
AP students in psychology should be able to do the following:
• Define intelligence and list characteristics of how psychologists measure
intelligence:
— abstract versus verbal measures;
— speed of processing.
• Discuss how culture influences the definition of intelligence.
• Compare and contrast historic and contemporary theories of intelligence (e.g.,
Charles Spearman, Howard Gardner, Robert Sternberg).
• Explain how psychologists design tests, including standardization strategies and
other techniques to establish reliability and validity.
• Interpret the meaning of scores in terms of the normal curve.
• Describe relevant labels related to intelligence testing (e.g., gifted,
cognitively disabled).
• Debate the appropriate testing practices, particularly in relation to culture-fair
test uses.
• Identify key contributors in intelligence research and testing (e.g., Alfred Binet,
Francis Galton, Howard Gardner, Charles Spearman, Robert Sternberg, Louis Terman, David Wechsler).

3. What is Intelligence?
Many people disagree about what exactly intelligence is, but most do agree that it is:
Relative: defined in relation to the same abilities in a comparison group (usually age)
Hypothetically constructed: it is unobservable, but instead inferred from behavior

4. What is Intelligence?
Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to:
learn from experience
solve problems
use our knowledge to adapt to new situations (Fluid Intelligence).
In research studies, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures.
This tends to be “school smarts.”
Preview Question 1: What argues for and against considering intelligence as one general mental ability?
Intelligence: literally means “choose between”
The ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge
Use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems

5. Origins of Intelligence
Intelligence Tests
Test for assessing natural mental abilities and comparing them to abilities of others
Usefulness is debated
Heredity vs. environment?
What do score differences really mean?
Began with Plato’s ideas
Spread to Western societies

6. Three Theories of Intelligence
1. Charles Spearman: General Intelligence
Contemporary Intelligence Theories
2. Howard Gardner: Multiple Intelligences (8)
3. Robert Sternberg: Multiple Intelligences (3)

7. General Intelligence Charles Spearman (1863-1945)
Thought intelligence was a general factor behind all of our mental ability.
General intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis (FA).

8. Athleticism, like intelligence, is many things
General Intelligence
Spearman’s Theory
g factor: the ability to reason and solve problems; general intelligence
s factor: the ability to excel in certain areas; specific intelligence
Athleticism, like intelligence, is many things

9. General Intelligence EXAMPLE:
people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on paragraph comprehension examinations
a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence.
other factors include a spatial ability factor, or a reasoning ability factor.

10. Factor analysis
Statistical procedure used to identify clusters or groups of related items (latent variable or factors) on a test.
NOTE: Latent variables are underlying constructs that are not directly observable and cannot be measured by one single thing.
Example:
You cannot directly measure the quality of someone's marriage. Instead, you can use a combination of observable variables to measure marriage quality, including the amount of time the couple spends together, the environment, marital conflict, marital attitudes, etc.
Using factor analysis in experiments helps researchers find similarities between any variables that are being used

11. Catell’s theory of Intelligence
Fluid intelligence 
the ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations, and identify patterns.
Decreases with age
Crystallized intelligence 
the ability to use learned knowledge and experience. 
Increases with age

12. Theories of Intelligence
Mid 1980’s: Psychologists seek to extend definition of intelligence past academic smarts
Howard Gardner (1983, 1999)
Believed that IQ scores measured only a limited range of human mental abilities.
Supports the idea that intelligence comes in multiple forms.
He argued we have 8 separate mental abilities he calls the multiple intelligences.

13. Gardner: Multiple Intelligence
Different abilities enable us to cope with different environmental challenges.
Brain trauma may affect at least one level of intelligence
Savant Syndrome
Score low on intelligence tests excel in abilities unrelated to general intelligence.
Individuals with remarkable, but rare talent,
even though they are mentally deficient in
other areas.
E.g. Dustin Hoffman- Rainman

14. Kim Peek, The Real Rain Man
Kim Peek’s special abilities started at the age of a year and a half.
He could read both pages of an open book at once, one page with one eye and the other with the other eye.
Retained 98% of the information he read.
The main cause of his remarkable abilities seems to have been the lack of connections between his brain's two hemispheres.
Almost like a natural born Split brain patient

15. Howard Gardner Eight types of intelligences
Speculates about a ninth one — existential intelligence (ability to think about the question of life, death and existence).

16. Further vocabulary breakdown: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic intelligence ("word smart")
Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")
Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")
Musical intelligence ("music smart")
Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")
Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")

18. Robert Sternberg
Agrees with Gardner, but suggests triarchic theory (3 intelligences) rather than 8.
Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests.
Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.
Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).
Preview Question 2: How do Gardner’s and Sternberg’s theories of multiple intelligences differ?

19. Intelligence and Creativity
Creativity: is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable.
Convergent thinking - thinking that involves following a series of logical steps with the goal of arriving at the “correct” answer.
Divergent thinking – thinking used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions; spontaneous, unorganized thought.
Creative people generate new, unexpected ideas through first through divergent thought. Ideas are then organized using convergent thought.
Preview Question 3: What is creativity, and what fosters it?

20. Convergent vs. Divergent

21. Intelligence and Creativity
Correlates somewhat with intelligence.
A high IQ alone does not guarantee creativity.
Personality traits that promote divergent thinking are more important.
Sternberg identified five components of divergent thinkers and creativity
Preview Question 3: What is creativity, and what fosters it?

22. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.
Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in novel ways.
creativity
Creative Environment: A creative and supportive environment allows creativity to bloom.
Venturesome Personality: A personality that seeks new experiences
Intrinsic Motivation:
A motivation to be creative from within.

23. Emotional intelligence
Introduced by Peter Salovey and John Mayer (1990).
Awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions to facilitate thinking
Ability to be self-motivated and be persistent
Viewed as a powerful influence on success in life
Empathy: the ability to understand what others feel

24. Emotional Intelligence
Measures overall emotional intelligence and its 4 components
Component
Description
Perceive emotion
Recognize emotions in faces, music and stories
Understand emotion
Predict emotions, how they change and blend
Manage emotion
Express emotions in different situations
Use emotion
Utilize emotions to adapt or be creative
Preview Question 4: What makes up emotional intelligence?

25. Emotional Intelligence: Criticism
Gardner and others criticize the idea of emotional intelligence.
Questioned whether we stretch this idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to our emotions.
Preview Question 5: To what extent is intelligence related to brain anatomy and neural processing speed?

26. Assessing Intelligence
Psychologists define intelligence testing as a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with others using numerical scores.
Preview Question 6: When and why were intelligence tests created?

27. Intelligence Quotient(IQ )Tests
IQ tests used to identify difference in intelligence
Geniuses: fall at the extreme high end of the normal curve for intelligence.
Intellectually disabled: IQ scores fall well below the mean on the normal curve

28. Alfred Binet
Modern intelligence testing from Binet French psychologist ( ).
Binet & Theodore Simon commissioned to study problem
Developed questions that would predict children’s future progress in the Paris school system.

29. AlFred Binet: School Achievement
Why he did it:
To identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum.
Due to all French children being forced into school
Huge differences in education levels, schooling, mental abilities, learning abilities, etc.
Developed objective test to ID at risk students

30. Alfred Binet: School Achievement
Dull vs. Bright children
Mental Age – chronological age typical of a given level of performance
Why does this effect children?
Led to development of reasoning/problem solving questions that might predict school achievement.
Feared labeling, only wanted to ID students needing special attention

31. Binet-Simon Test The test had 4 important distinctions:
Scores were interpreted at their current performance
Used to identify students in need of help, not label them or categorize them
Emphasized that training and opportunity could affect intelligence
Was empirically constructed
Scoring the test was done by calculating the mental age (MA) and the chronological age (CA).
MA= The average age at which normal individuals achieve a particular score
CA= The number of years since an individuals birth
SB5 is often used by educators to sort students for special educational programs

33. Coming to America
The idea of IQ testing became popular in America for 3 reasons:
A huge increase in immigration
New laws requiring universal education
Military assessing new recruits for WWI
It created an inexpensive and objective way to separate those could benefit from education or military leadership training and those who needed assistance.

34. Downside of IQ Testing
Tests ended up reinforcing prevailing prejudices about race and gender.
Ignored environmental disadvantages which may limit the full development of people’s intellectual abilities.

35. William Stern Created Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Modern tests
don’t compute IQ
IQ tests do not work well for adults
Average = 100
2/3 of the population score b/w
Scores reflect innate mental ability, education, & familiarity with culture assumed by test

36. Lewis Terman What he did:
In the US, Terman adapted Binet’s test for American school children and named the test the Stanford-Binet Test IQ Test.
Why he did it:
Terman believed in eugenics
New Standford-Binet scale was no longer used solely for advocating education for all children, as was Binet's objective. A new objective of intelligence testing was illustrated in the Stanford-Binet manual with testing ultimately resulting in "curtailing the reproduction of feeble-mindedness and in the elimination of an enormous amount of crime, pauperism, and industrial inefficiency (p.7)" Terman, L., Lyman, G., Ordahl, G., Ordahl, L., Galbreath, N., & Talbert, W. (1916). The Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring Intelligence. Baltimore: Warwick & York.(White, 2000).
Terman's initial studies were even more troublesome. He administered English tests to Spanish-speakers and unschooled African-Americans, concluding:
“High-grade or border-line deficiency… is very, very common among Spanish-Indian and Mexican families of the Southwest and also among negroes. Their dullness seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stocks from which they come… Children of this group should be segregated into separate classes… They cannot master abstractions but they can often be made into efficient workers… from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem because of their unusually breeding” (The Measurement of Intelligence, 1916, p ).
Terman's biased tests gave "scientific" proof that, for many Whites, justified racial discrimination, segregation, and eugenics.
Lewis Madison Terman (15 January 1877 in Johnson County, Indiana – 21 December 1956 in Palo Alto, California) was an American psychologist, noted as a pioneer in educational psychology in the early 20th century at Stanford University. He is best known as the inventor of the Stanford-Binet IQ test. He was a prominent eugenicist and was a member of the Human Betterment Foundation. He was also served as president of the American Psychological Association.
The Human Betterment Foundation (HBF) was an American eugenics organization established in Pasadena, California in 1928 by E.S. Gosney with the aim "to foster and aid constructive and educational forces for the protection and betterment of the human family in body, mind, character, and citizenship". It primarily served to compile and distribute information about compulsory sterilization legislation in the United States, for the purposes of eugenics
Eugenics: a social movement aimed at improving the human species through selective breeding…promoted higher reproduction rates of people with ‘superior’ traits, and aimed to reduce reproduction rates of people with ‘inferior’ traits.

37. Lewis M. Terman’s study:
Shattered myth of weakling genius.
Early findings showed that the gifted, also called “termites,” were socially well adjusted, skilled leaders.
Above average in height, weight, and physical attractiveness.
People with IQ of 180 and above found to have some social and behavioral adjustment problems

38. Intelligence Test Scores
Scores on intelligence tests are typically represented by the normal curve
Percentages under each section of the normal curve represent the percentage of scores falling within that section for each standard deviation from the mean
The percentages under each section of the normal curve represent the percentage of scores falling within that section for each standard deviation (SD) from the mean
Scores: The dotted vertical lines each represent SD set at 100. For example, an IQ of 115 on the Wechsler represents one standard deviation above the mean
The area under the curve indicates that percent of the population falls between 100 and 115 on this test.

39. David Wechsler Wechsler developed:
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Later developed the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
an intelligence test for school-aged children.

40. David Wechsler Designed for specific age groups
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV)
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-IV) .
Yield a verbal and a performance score, as well as an overall score of intelligence.
11 other aspects related to intelligence that are designed to assess clinical and educational problems.

41. Sample questions

43. Principles of Test Construction
For a psychological test to be acceptable it must be:
Standardized
Reliable
Valid
Preview Question 7: What’s the difference between aptitude and achievement tests, and how can we develop and evaluate them?

44. Standardization
The process of giving the test to a large group of people representative of the actual population the test is designed.
Establishment of consistent and standard methods of test administration.
Use of comparison group whose scores are used to compare individual test results
Norms: scores from a standardized group of people distributed mostly around the mean on the normal curve

45. Normal Curve
Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.
Normal curve distribution: more accurate; tests deviation IQ scores

47. Reliability
The tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people
To establish reliability researchers establish different procedures:
Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are.
Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.
Preview Question 8: How stable are intelligence scores over the life span?

49. Validity Reliability of a test does not ensure validity.
Validity of a test refers to what the test is supposed to measure or predict.
Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait.
Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.

51. Extremes of Intelligence
A valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes:
the mentally retarded (IQ 70)
individuals with high intelligence (IQ 130).
These two groups are significantly different.
Preview Question 9: What are the traits of those at the low and high intelligence extremes?

52. Gifted- high intelligence
2% of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve
IQ of 130 or above
Geniuses: IQ falls above 140 to 145
Joan Freeman’s views:
Differing life conditions for the gifted serve as a major factor in their success, adjustment, and well-being
Gifted children pushed to achieve at younger ages grow up as unhappy adults

53. Gifted-High Intelligence
Contrary to popular belief, people with high intelligence test scores tend to be:
Healthy
Well-adjusted
Unusually successful academically.

54. Intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder):
Condition in which a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age.
I Q score falls below 70 on a test with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15
Adaptive behavior is severely below standards.
Limitation begins in the developmental period
Occurs in about 1% of the population

55. Mental Retardation Required constant supervision a few decades ago.
Currently with a supportive family environment and special education they can now care for themselves.

56. Diagnosis for intellectual disability
DSM-5 diagnosis of intellectual disability functions across three domains:
Conceptual: memory, reasoning, language, reading, writing, math, and other academic skills.
Social: empathy, social judgment, interpersonal communication, and other skills that impact the ability to make and maintain friendships.
Practical: self-management skills that affect personal care, job responsibilities, school, money management, and other areas
The diagnosis removes the specific age criteria

57. Causes of Low IQ Unhealthy living conditions: lead poisoning.
Deficits: malnutrition, inadequate access to health care, lack of mental stimulation, etc.
Biological causes of intellectual disability:
Down syndrome
Fetal alcohol syndrome: a condition resulting from exposing a developing embryo to alcohol
Fragile X syndrome: defective gene on the X chromosome of the 23rd pair leading to a deficiency in a protein needed for brain development

58. Causes of low iq Other causes:
Lack of oxygen at birth
Damage to the fetus in the womb from disease, infections, or drug use by the mother
Diseases and accidents during childhood
Individuals with an intellectual disability are just as responsive to love and affection as anyone else

59. Usefulness of iq tests
IQ tests valid for predicting academic success and job performance
Recent research suggests skills in self-regulation or levels of motivation may impact IQ measures.
Plays an important role in neuropsychology where neuropsychologists use intelligence testing in diagnosis

60. Flynn Effect
In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen steadily by an average of 27 points.
This phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect.
NOTE:
Due to the Flynn effect, IQ test scoring must occasionally be reworked in order to “reset” the average score to 100.
That is, if you took an IQ test from when your grandparents were children, you would likely score higher than on a modern IQ test.

61. Flynn effect
Substantial and long-sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores.
Measured in many parts of the world from roughly to the present day.

62. Genetic Influences
Studies of twins, family members, and adopted children together support the idea that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence.

63. Adoption Studies
Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted parents.

64. Heritability
The variation in intelligence test scores are attributable to genetics.
We credit heredity with 50% of the variation in intelligence.
It pertains only to why people differ from one another, not to the individual.

65. Environmental Influences
Studies of twins and adopted children also show the following:
Fraternal twins raised together tend to show similarity in intelligence scores.
Identical twins raised apart show slightly less similarity in their intelligence scores.

66. Early Intervention Effects
Early neglect from caregivers leads children to develop a lack of:
personal control over the environment
it impoverishes their intelligence.
Romanian orphans with minimal
human interaction are delayed in their development.

67. Schooling Effects
Schooling is an experience that pays dividends, which is reflected in intelligence scores.
Increased schooling correlates with higher intelligence scores.
To increase readiness for schoolwork,
projects like Head Start facilitate leaning.

68. Ethnic Similarities and Differences
Racial groups differ in their average intelligence scores.
High-scoring people (and groups) are more likely to attain high levels of education and income.

69. Racial (Group) Differences
White Americans score higher in average intelligence than black Americans (Avery and others, 1994).
European New Zealanders score higher than native New Zealanders (Braden, 1994).
White-Americans
Black-Americans
Average IQ = 100
Average IQ = 85
Hispanic Americans

70. Environmental Effects
Differences in intelligence among these groups are largely environmental.
If one environment is more fertile it develops more abilities than the other.

71. Reasons Why Environment Affects Intelligence
Races are remarkably alike genetically.
Race is a social category.
Asian students outperform North American students on math achievement and aptitude tests.
Today’s better prepared populations would outperform populations of the 1930s on intelligence tests.
White and black infants tend to score equally well on tests predicting future intelligence.
Different ethnic groups have experienced periods of remarkable achievement in different eras.

72. Stereotype threat
A condition in which being made aware of a negative performance stereotype interferes with the performance of someone that considers himself or herself part of that group

73. Gender Similarities and Differences
There are seven ways in which males and females differ in various abilities.
1. Girls are better spellers
2. Girls are verbally fluent and have large vocabularies
3. Girls are better at locating objects
4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color
5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of underachievement
6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving, but under perform at math computation
7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do

74. The Question of Bias
Aptitude tests are necessarily biased in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural differences.
However, aptitude tests are not biased in the sense that they accurately predict performance of one group over the other.
Preview Question 12: Are intelligence tests inappropriately biased?

75. Cultural bias & iq test
Intelligence tests free of cultural bias are difficult to design
One attempt was to eliminate language and design tests with demonstrations and pictures.
A “culture-fair” test requires the use of nonverbal abilities like object rotation
More culturally fair
Does not measure other important mental abilities like verbal knowledge

76. Artificial Intelligence
Designing and programming computer systems
to do intelligent things
to simulate human thought processes through:
intuitive reasoning
learning
understanding language

77. Artificial Intelligence
Includes practical applications
chess playing
industrial robots
expert systems
Efforts to model human thinking inspired by our current understanding of how the brain works.
Example: Sophia the Robot

78. Artificial Intelligence
Computer Neural Networks
Computer circuits that mimic the brain’s interconnected neural cells.
Performing tasks
learning to recognize visual patterns
learning to recognize smells

79. What do you think about this quote??

80. Recap: Crash Course
Video: