1. Patterns in Vote Choice
12.4
Patterns in Vote Choice
Party Identification
Ideology
Income and Education
Race and Ethnicity
Gender
Religion
Issues
The act of voting may seem straightforward enough. Voting is considered conventional political participation, or activism that seeks to influence the political process through commonly accepted methods. Voters may also choose to participate in unconventional political participation, which can be unusual or extreme and can include protests, boycotts, and picketing.
But how do voters decide how to vote? That is the question we will address in this section. Party affiliate and ideology top the list of influences, but there is also income and education; race and ethnicity, gender, religion, and specific policy issues.

2. Party Identification and Ideology
12.4
Party Identification and Ideology
Party Identity
Most powerful predictor of vote choice
Doesn't fully eliminate ticket splitting
Ideology
Liberals favor government involvement in social programs.
Conservatives favor ideals of individualism and market-based competition.
Party identity and affiliation, and political ideology, are hands-down the most powerful predictors of how a person will vote. Party identity may not fully eliminate ticket-splitting, which is voting for candidates of different parties on the same ticket, but it also can help guide voters on races in which the voters are uninformed.
Ideology also motivates voters at the ballot box. Generally speaking, liberals tend to support government involvement in social programs that promote tolerance and social justice. Conservatives tend to support the ideals of individualism and market-based competition.

3. 12.4
FIGURE How do demographic characteristics affect voters' choices?
Demographic characteristics can be powerful predictors of citizens' choices at the voting booth. Partisanship is the most significant predictor of these decisions. In 2012, for example, 92 percent of Democrats voted for President Barack Obama and 93 percent of Republicans voted for Mitt Romney.
Source:

4. Income and Education 12.4 Lower-income voters Higher-income voters
Tend to vote Democratic
Higher-income voters
Tend to vote Republican
Education
Most educated and least educated tend to vote Democratic.
Voters in the middle, such as those with a bachelor's degree, tend to vote Republican.
Social scientists have noted that income had been a consistent predictor of voter choice. Put simply, the poor vote Democratic, while the well-off vote heavily Republican. As income and education are connected, it's not surprising that a similar pattern exists for education. The very educated and the least educated citizens tend to vote Democratic, while those with a moderate amount of education, such as a bachelor's degree, tend to vote Republican.

5. Race and Ethnicity 12.4 Whites more likely to vote Republican
African Americans and Hispanics more likely to vote Democratic
Distinct voting patterns exist for groups based on their race and ethnicity and their gender. While whites have shown an increasing tendency to vote Republican, the opposite is true for African Americans. They tend to vote overwhelmingly for Democrats. Hispanics also tend to vote for Democrats, but not as consistently as African Americans do.

6. Gender 12.4 Women more likely to vote Democratic
Men more likely to vote Republican
When it comes to men and women, the voting gender gap seems alive and well. Women overall tend to lean toward the Democratic side, while men tend to vote more frequently with Republicans.

7. 12.4 How does gender influence electoral outcomes? Jason Reed/Reuters
The gender gap is one of the most powerful and consistent patterns in American elections. Women are significantly more likely to support Democratic candidates than their male counterparts. Thus, as reflected in this t-shirt, which declares, “Women will decide the election for Obama,” female voters received much of the credit for Democrats' victories in 2012.
Jason Reed/Reuters

8. Religion and Other Issues
12.4
Religion and Other Issues
Religion
Jewish voters strong Democratic Party supporters
Protestants more likely to vote Republican
Catholics divided
Social justice versus abortion
Issues
Economy often key issue
Retrospective judgment versus prospective judgment
Social scientists have long observed patterns in voting among religious groups, but this may be starting to decline. Generally speaking, Jewish voters consistently tend to vote Democratic, while Protestants lean more heavily toward Republicans. Catholics are more divided. Many vote Democratic because they are attracted to the ideals of social justice. But other Catholics are strongly opposed to abortion, and vote Republican in response to that issue.
While those strong feelings may influence an individual, there are other issues that motivate voters that are not directly connected to group identity. Often the economy is an issue that motivates individuals to vote a particular way. Voters tend to reward the president's party during good economic times, and punish that party during bad economic times. This is called retrospective judgment because it is based on past performance. At other times, voters use prospective judgement by voting based on what a candidate says he or she will do if elected.

9. Issues 12.4 Economy often key issue
Retrospective judgment versus prospective judgment
While those strong feelings may influence an individual, there are other issues that motivate voters that are not directly connected to group identity. Often the economy is an issue that motivates individuals to vote a particular way. Voters tend to reward the president's party during good economic times, and punish that party during bad economic times. This is called retrospective judgment because it is based on past performance. At other times, voters use prospective judgement by voting based on what a candidate says he or she will do if elected.

10. 12.4
12.4 When voters reward or punish a political party at the polls based on past achievements or failures, they are using what?
Ticket-splitting
Retrospective judgment
Prospective judgment
None of the above
We have discussed many ways that voters make choices at the ballot box. Let's answer a question about one of those methods of decision-making.

11. 12.4
12.4 When voters reward or punish a political party at the polls based on past achievements or failures, they are using what?
Ticket-splitting
Retrospective judgment
Prospective judgment
None of the above
Voters use retrospective judgment when they reward or punish a party for past accomplishments.

12. Voter Turnout 12.5 Income and Education Race and Ethnicity Gender Age
Civic Engagement
Interest in Politics
When we speak of voter turnout, we are referring to the proportion of eligible voters that actually cast a ballot. While some states may add additional restrictions for felons, generally speaking, any citizen who is at least 18 years old is eligible to vote.
Unfortunately, just because people can vote doesn't mean they do. Voter turnout in the United States, at 40 percent, is much lower than in other industrialized democracies. In this section, we will examine some factors that influence voter turnout, such as income and education, race and ethnicity, gender, age, civic engagement, and interest in politics.

13. 12.5 TABLE 12.2 How do states regulate voter eligibility?
Table 12.2 shows how many states place a given restriction on voting.
Sources: Pew Center on the States, National Council on State Legislatures,
and CIRCLE,
Activity: Have students write a think piece in class exploring the question of whether there is ever a valid reason to deny someone the ability to vote. Students should be prepared to share their opinions with other members of the class.

14. 12.5
Income and Education
Those with incomes over $65,000 vote more than citizens with incomes under $35,000.
College graduates are more likely to vote than those with less education.
Individuals with more money are more likely to believe that the system works for them and are, therefore, more likely to vote. People with incomes over $65,000 vote more than citizens with incomes under $35,000. And college graduates are more likely to vote than those with less education.

15. 12.5
Race and Ethnicity
Whites tend to vote more than African Americans, Hispanics, and other minorities.
Long-term consequences of voting barriers
When it comes to race and ethnicity, whites tend to vote more than African Americans, Hispanics and other minorities. Social scientists have pointed to the long- term consequences of voting barriers, especially in areas of the Deep South. It wasn't until the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which did away with discriminatory voting barriers, that African Americans began voting in significant numbers.

16. 12.5
FIGURE How has the racial and ethnic composition of voters changed?
Although white Americans continue to constitute a majority of the U.S. electorate, black, Hispanic, and Asian voters have accounted for significant percentages of the electorate during recent campaigns. This diversity alters both the voices heard from the voting booth and the demands placed on government.
Source: Data from Pew Research Center, “Dissecting the 2008 Electorate: Most Diverse in U.S. History,” April 30, 2009.
and

17. 12.5
Gender
Women vote more than men, and account for a majority of the electorate.
Besides income, education, race and ethnicity, several key factors influence voter turnout. Those include gender, age, civic engagement, and interest in politics. When it comes to gender, women have begun voting more than men, in contrast to their historically lower turnout. Because women constitute slightly more than 50 percent of the population, women account for a majority of the electorate.

18. Age 12.5 Older citizens vote more than younger citizens.
Age is also a key factor—the youngest eligible voters tend to vote with the least frequency. Voter turnout increases for people over 30, and declines again after the age of 70.

19. Civic Engagement 12.5 Members of civic groups vote more.
It likely is no surprise that individuals who are involved in civic groups and those who identify as being very interested in politics tend to have high and consistent voter turnout.

20. Interest in Politics 12.5 Reliable predictor of voting
It likely is no surprise that individuals who are involved in civic groups and those who identify as being very interested in politics tend to have high and consistent voter turnout.

21. 12.5 All of these are a factor in voter turnout except:
Age and race
Income end education
Geographic location
All of the above
Let's see what you have learned about factors that influence voter turnout.

22. 12.5 All of these are a factor in voter turnout except:
Age and race
Income end education
Geographic location
All of the above
Geographic location has not been shown to have an impact on voter turnout.
Activity: Democratic political systems are defined by the participation of the people in the political process. Yet in a democracy, nonparticipation can also be an effective political strategy. Have your students consider this proposition through the following questions:
•Should individuals who choose not to vote have the right to complain about the outcome of an election?
•Is nonvoting ever a valid form of political expression? If so, explain how. If not, explain why not.

23. Toward Reform: Problems with Voter Turnout
12.6
Toward Reform: Problems with Voter Turnout
Why Don't Americans Turn Out?
Improving Voter Turnout
It can be difficult for elections officials and even candidates to inspire people to actually turn out to vote. That is especially true for mid-term elections, which garner just 40 to 45 percent of eligible voters. Even a presidential election may see just 50 or 60 percent of voters show up. In this final section, we will talk about some of the causes and possible solutions for low turnout.

24. Why Don't Americans Turn Out?
12.6
Why Don't Americans Turn Out?
Other Commitments
Difficulty of Registration
Difficulty of Voting
Number of Elections
Voter Attitudes
Weakened Influence of Political Parties
When asked why they didn't make it to the polls, Americans have no shortage of reasons from which to draw. Many say they simply had other commitments, whether work or family, that kept them away from the polls. For others, the process of registering to vote is too complicated.
The United States is one of the very few democracies that place the burden of registering on the citizen rather than on the government. The National Voter Registration Act of 1993, commonly known as the Motor Voter Act, tried to lesson the burden by allowing people to register to vote at the DMV and other service agencies.
Then there is the difficulty of voting itself; in 30 states, voters must show some form of ID. In nine of those states, that has to be a photo ID.
Some Americans become overwhelmed by the sheer number of elections and thus don't vote. Voter attitude is also key; some voters may feel alienated, and others are simply apathetic or disturbed by the tone and tactics taken by campaigns. Finally, the political parties are not as effective as they used to be in mobilizing voters and getting them to the polls.

25. 12.6 FIGURE 12.5 Why don't people vote?
During November of each federal election year, the U.S. Census Bureau conducts a Current Population Survey that asks a series of questions related to voting and registration. Figure 12.5 shows how, in the November survey, respondents were asked whether they voted in the 2008 election and, if not, what their reasons were for not voting. The most common reason for not voting was being too busy.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, November 2008.

26. 12.6 How do citizens vote by absentee ballot?
Citizens who will be unable to make it to the polls on Election Day may file an application to vote by absentee ballot. Local Boards of Elections mail ballots to these individuals; citizens fill out the ballot and return them by mail. Here, election officials sort and organize completed absentee ballots.
Justin Sullivan/Getty Images News/Getty Images

27. Improving Voter Turnout
12.6
Improving Voter Turnout
Make Election Day a Holiday
Enable Early Voting
Permit Mail and Online Voting
Make Registration Easier
Modernize the Ballot
Strengthen Parties
A number of solutions have been proposed to boost voter turnout. One is to make Election Day a national holiday, so that fewer people would have work scheduling conflicts. This could backfire, however, if people used it to extend a weekend holiday.
Another suggestion is to enable early voting; in fact, 34 states already have some form of early voting. A downside to early voting is that voters might regret their choice if they hear new information about a candidate after they voted but before Election Day.
Other suggestions include allowing mail and online voting. Mail-in ballots are already in use in many counties in Washington, California, and Oregon. And some states have begun experimenting with online voting. Further simplifying voter registration has been suggested, as has modernizing the ballot. The latter is intended to avoid the problems that surfaced in Florida in 2000 due to a poor ballot design.
Finally, stronger political parties could improve voter turnout, but adopting reforms that would enable party strengthening, such as allowing for increases in finances, raise questions about the role of money in elections.

28. 12.6
12.6 The most frequently cited reason Americans give for failing to vote is:
Distrust in government and voter cynicism
Overwhelming number of elections
Difficulty with voter registration
Conflicts with work or family
Why don't Americans vote? Let's see what you have learned about the reasons for low voter turnout.

29. 12.6
12.6 The most frequently cited reason Americans give for failing to vote is:
Distrust in government and voter cynicism
Overwhelming number of elections
Difficulty with voter registration
Conflicts with work or family
The number one reason Americans give for failing to vote is that they are too busy with work and family conflicts.

30. 12 Discussion Questions Why don't more Americans vote?
What changes to election procedures might increase voter turnout?
What factors influence how Americans make their voting choices?

31. 12 Further Review Listen to the Chapter
Study and Review the Flashcards
Study and Review the Practice Tests