1. The significance of learner’s errors
Kate White
Professional Development Workshop
CLIC, Rice University
Feb. 11, 2016

2. Our Plan Why are errors important? What do we do with errors?
Practical applications for teaching and learning

3. Why are errors important?

4. What is an error?
“an unsuccessful bit of language” (James, 1998, p. 1)

5. History of errors
Until the 70s, we thought all errors were due to L1 transfer, but analysis showed that the L1 cannot be the source of all errors (Lightbown & Spada, 2013) What caused our reanalysis of errors?

6. The audiolingual method
Dominant L2-teaching method of the 1960s and 1970s
Based on behaviorism
“A psychological theory that all learning, whether verbal or non-verbal, takes place through the establishment of habits. According to this view, when learners imitate and repeat the language they hear in their surrounding environment and are positively reinforced for doing so, habit formation (or learning) occurs.” (Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p )

7. The audiolingual method
Dominant L2-teaching method of the 1960s and 1970s
Based on behaviorism
Stimulus-response and habit formation -> learning
In this method, “students rarely use the language spontaneously. Teachers avoid letting beginning learners speak freely out of concerns that this would allow them to make errors. The errors, it is said, could become habits.” (Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p. 155)

8. The audiolingual method
Example 1: (from Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p. 155)
(A group of 15-year-old students involved in an exercise based on the simple present of English verbs.)
S1: And uh, in the afternoon, uh, I come home and uh, uh, I uh, washing my dog.
T: I wash.
S1: My dog.
T: Every day you wash your dog?
S1: No. [ben]
S2: Il n’a pas de chien! (He doesn’t have a dog!)
S1: Non, mais on peut le dire! (No, but we can say we do!)

9. The audiolingual method
Example 2:
(A group of 12-year-old learners of English as a foreign language.)
T: Repeat after me. Is there any butter in the refrigerator?
Class: Is there any butter in the refrigerator?
T: There’s very little, Mom.
Class: There’s very little, Mom.
T: Are there any tomatoes in the refrigerator?
Class: Are there any tomatoes in the refrigerator?
T: There are very few, Mom.
Class: There are very few, Mom.

10. The audiolingual method
What are the problems here?
What is the point of “pure repetition”?

11. Corder (1967)
Corder saw that teachers were dismissing errors “as a matter of no particular importance, as possible annoying, distracting, but inevitable by-products of the process of learning a language about which the teacher should make as little fuss as possible”, yet also avoid at all costs (p. 162)
Two points of view in the audiolingual method:
With a perfect teaching method, errors won’t happen
Errors will always occur because we’re human

12. Corder (1967), cont.
How does Corder define intake? “The simple fact of presenting a certain linguistic form to a learner in the classroom does not necessarily qualify it for the status of input, for the reason that input is ‘what goes in’ not what is available for going in, and we may reasonably suppose that it is the learner who controls this input, or more properly his intake.” (p. 165) *The first to suggest this distinction, input vs. intake*

13. Review of terms
Input: “the language to which a learner is exposed either orally or visually” (Corder, 1967) “the language that the learner is exposed to (either written or spoken) in the environment” (Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p. 219) Intake: “language that is available to and utilized in some way by the learner” (Corder, 1967) Language that the learner attends to and comprehends in some way Interlanguage: “what if the language produced by second-language learners is systematic?” (Tarone, 2014, p. 23) Transitional competence: “the learner is using a definite system of language at every point in his development… the learner’s errors are evidence of this system and are themselves systematic.” (Corder, 1967, p. 166)

14. Discussion – Corder (1967)
Why were Corder’s suggestions and ideas considered groundbreaking at the time?
How does a change in focus from instruction to learning affect our understanding of second language acquisition?
On page 166, Corder asserts that errors are “adventitious artefacts[sic] of linguist performance and do not reflect a defect in our knowledge of our [L1]… it would be quite unreasonable to expect the learner of a second language not to exhibit such slips of the tongue (or pen), since he is subject to similar external and internal conditions when performing in his first or second language.” Corder then distinguishes between errors of this nature, which he terms “mistakes,” and errors that “reveal [the learner’s] underlying knowledge of the language to date”, a construct that has later been understood as the learner’s interlanguage. In your own teaching experience, have you seen both mistakes and errors? Are they easy to distinguish?

15. Corder (1967), cont. Error: systematic, related to competence
Mistake: non-systematic, related to performance
Why are errors significant? (p. 167)
Show teachers how far the learner has progressed
Provide evidence to researchers about the process of learning the second language
Provide opportunities for learner to learn and test hypotheses about language

16. Are errors always obvious?
Lightbown & Spada (2013): “…learners sometimes avoid using some features of language that they perceive to be difficult for them”, leading to the absence of certain errors in their speech (p. 45) Sometimes “language acquisition progress is reflected in a decrease in the use of a correct form that was based on rote memorization or chunk learning.” “New errors may be based on an emerging ability to generalize a particular grammatical form beyond the specific terms with which it was first learned. In this sense, an increase in errors may be an indication of progress” (p. 41) What does this mean? Can you think of any examples?

17. Example “I buyed a ticket”
This learner may actually know more about English than a learner who says ‘I bought a ticket’ – the latter may be a memorized chunk, we can’t tell without more information from that learner.
The learner who says “buyed” obviously knows that –ed is a marker of the past tense in English and is developing their understanding of when and why to use that rule.
(Lightbown & Spada, 2013)

18. Errors as evidence
Progress to a higher level does not always mean fewer errors (Lightbown & Spada, 2013) From Corder (1967, p. 168): “Utterance of a correct form cannot be taken as proof that the learner has learned the systems which would generate that form” “Only the situational context could show whether [a learner’s utterance] was an error or not”

19. Error sources L1 interference Gaps in knowledge
Overgeneralization of a rule/hypothesis testing
Hypercorrection
Analogy/false analogy
Incompleteness of knowledge
Misanalysis
What else?
Can be more than one at once

20. Error sources
L1 interference Gaps in knowledge Overgeneralization of a rule – “he, that was a great person…” Hypercorrection – “seventeen years old girl” Analogy/false analogy – “childs” Incompleteness of knowledge – “no one knew where was she…” Misanalysis – “They are carnivorous plants and its name…” What else? Can be more than one at once

21. Error types In: Grammar Pragmatics Acceptability Pronunciation
Vocabulary
Syntax/word order
What else?

22. Corder (1967), cont.
No advances in teaching can be made until we understand what learners bring to the task of acquisition
“…the position taken here is that the learner’s possession of his native language is facilitative and that errors are not to be regarded as signs of inhibition, but simply as evidence of his strategies of learning” (p. 168)
“We maybe able to allow the learner’s innate strategies to dictate our practice and determine our syllabus; we many learn to adapt ourselves to his needs rather than impose upon him our preconceptions of how he ought to learn, what he ought to learn and when he ought to learn it” (p. 169)

23. 1970s Application of new ideas and efforts to refute behaviorism
Research on error analysis and input
1972 – Selinker introduced the construct of interlanguage
Ex. Wagner-Gough & Hatch (1975)
“authors argued that learners learn syntax from the input and interaction with NSs. At the time, this was a radical way of looking at the role of syntactic learning because the then-current orthodox position, particularly among those involved in classroom teaching, was that conversational interactions were used to practice forms, not learn them” (Gass, 1997)

24. 1980s - now
Focus on role of formal instruction in L2 development Various methods that focus on establishing form-meaning connections and encouraging intake from input New methods (ex. communicative) that are learner-focused (both linguistically and cognitively) rather than teacher-focused New methods that focus on learning through interaction

25. Takeaways from Corder (1967)
Focus on learners and learning processes Terminology: intake, errors vs. mistakes Errors are important as evidence and occur in context In SLA we ask ourselves, how do learners come to internalize and use the linguistic system of another language? We ask this because Corder asked it first.

26. What do we do with errors?

27. What do we do with errors?
Lightbown (1980): One of the most important accomplishments of SLA is showing that learner language does have structure Selinker (1972): the L2 learner’s internal linguistic system is worthy of study in its own right, and it is not a corrupted version of the L2 How do we know that?

28. Output & Interlanguage
Lightbown & Spada (2013): “Teachers and learners cannot read learners’ minds, so they must infer what learners know from what they do.” (p. 41)
Learners “produce sentences that are not exactly like those they have heard. These new sentences appear to be based on internal cognitive processes and prior knowledge that interact with the language they hear around them.”
The interlanguage is a developing system with rules and patterns – it is not simply an imperfect or corrupted version of the target language

29. Interlanguage: a definition
“A learner’s developing second language knowledge. It may have characteristics of the learner’s first language, characteristics of the second language, and some characteristics that seem to be general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systems. Interlanguages are systematic, but they are also dynamic. They change as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses about the second language.” (Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p. 220)

30. Learning process
Input > Intake > Interlanguage > Output

31. Errors & Interlanguage
Errors are a “natural and valuable part of the language learning process” (Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p. 156) Errors “reflect the patterns of learners’ developing interlanguage systems – showing gaps in their knowledge, overgeneralization of a second language rule, or an inappropriate transfer of the first language pattern to the second language,” among other things (p. 208)

32. Bardovi-Harlig (2014)
In order to illustrate “Selinker’s claim that interlanguage is a system in its own right,” she considers evidence for the state of learners’ interlanguage in three past studies on tense-aspect morphology, pragmatics, and conventional expressions Important: we must consider what forms “are available to the learner” in their development of alternatives (p. 137)

33. Bardovi-Harlig (2014), cont.
Two approaches:
Study the meanings that a learner associates with one form over time
Study the forms that a learner associates with one concept over time
The latter is a study of the “development of alternatives”, which are attached to the learner’s pre-existing conceptual knowledge (for the most part)
In other words, the development of more than one way to express a concept in the second language

34. Bardovi-Harlig (2014), cont.
Study 1: reverse-order reports
When events in a narrative are reported in reverse order
Ex. “I ate my lunch after my wife came back from her shopping.” (B-H, 2014, p. 131)
Findings:
Learners use reverse-order reports and follow the maxim of overtly signaling non-chronological sequences
Tools: morphological contrast (tense/aspect), adverbials, syntactic devices, complementation, relative clauses (p. 132)
Examples on pg. 133
Often they use more than one “tool”

35. Discussion – Bardovi-Harlig (2014)
In the section on the study of tense-aspect morphology, Bardovi-Harlig points out that her findings, which indicate that learners recognize the need to mark reverse-order reports, are only obvious because her analysis is not focused on either correct forms or errors (p. 135). Instead, she considers her approach one from “the interlanguage perspective,” which means that she focuses on how the learners perform the same action (reverse-order reports) as the native speakers, only with the linguistic material at the learners’ disposal. What could you gain in the classroom by adopting this approach when analyzing your students’ L2 performance?
Ex. 18: “After that the policeman caught him… In the car, there are many people who did bad things.”

36. Bardovi-Harlig (2014), cont.
Study 2: pragmatics
Bardovi-Harlig illustrates how, over time, learners develop more alternatives for expressing the same concept, allowing broader pragmatic expression (or more nuanced expression of concepts)
In this way, grammatical knowledge and pragmatic ability are linked
She calls this “a full tool kit” (p. 137)
Without the full tool kit, learners might not have a choice to make, resulting in pragmatic errors that reveal the state of their interlanguage development
Can you think of any examples of students lacking “a full tool kit” that you have encountered?

37. Bardovi-Harlig (2014), cont.
Study 3: conventional expressions
Multi-word routine expressions, often learned as chunks in initial stages
Computerized conversation simulations

38. Example
You go to a clothing store and you need to find a new shirt. A salesperson approaches you. You don’t want the salesperson’s assistance. Salesperson (audio): “Can I help you?” You say:

39. Bardovi-Harlig (2014), cont.
Study 3: conventional expressions
Multi-word routine expressions, often learned as chunks in initial stages
Computerized conversation simulations
Findings:
Learner responses showed that interlanguage grammar was stronger than the influence of input for conventional expressions
“It is also clear that learners often know what the target expression is, even when the string produced by the interlanguage grammar is distinct from the target structure” as evidenced by the use of the correct words in incorrect grammatical form (p. 142)

40. Discussion
2. In the section on conventional expressions, Bardovi-Harlig considers how “learner attempts at conventional expressions are influenced by both input… and interlanguage grammar” (p. 143). How do learners’ attempts at these expressions reflect interlanguage grammar? Have you seen examples like the ones she provides (p ) in your students’ speech?
Learner ranges for conventional expressions:
I just look, I just looking, I’ll just looking, Just I’m looking, I am just looking (p. 142)
Ungrammatical: I’m sorry for late, I’m sorry for I’m late, I’m sorry about late, I’m so sorry about my late, I’m so sorry to being so late, I’m sorry because I late
Grammatical: Sorry for being late, I’m sorry to be late, I’m sorry to come late, Sorry for coming late (p. 143)

41. Bardovi-Harlig (2014), cont.
So, even for phrases learned as chunks, learners’ interlanguage grammar can produce variants that reveal the current state of their interlanguage development
Learners may exhibit native-like understanding of what they should do in a conversation, but may not have the “full tool kit” with which to do it
Ex. Reverse-order marking
Ex. Pragmatics

42. Discussion: errors
Which aspects of learners’ interlanguage are most likely to affect their ability to use language effectively outside of the classroom? Do you think priorities for classroom interaction and instruction reflect the importance of these different language features? Ex. Word order, grammatical morphemes, vocabulary, phonology, pragmatics… Ex. “Research on pronunciation has shown that second language speakers’ ability to make themselves understood depends more on their ability to reproduce the phrasing and stress patterns – the ‘melody of the language – than on their ability to articulate each individual sound.” (Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p. 206)

43. Discussion: errors
Have you ever noticed: In a controlled activity, your students conjugate a verb correctly. Afterwards, in a more open-ended activity (conversation, a game, composition, etc.) they make an error with the conjugation. What does this show you about the state of their interlanguage?

44. Activity 1: Analyzing learner language
See handout.
Adapted from Lightbown & Spada (2013)

45. Practical applications
For teaching and learning

46. Errors, SLA, and teaching
Research in SLA can offer realistic expectations about teaching and learning This, it could be argued, was the overarching goal of switching our focus from the teacher to the learner

47. Applications:
Methods
Form-focused instruction
Corrective feedback

48. Methods
“Get it right from the beginning” vs. “Get it right in the end” Beginning: audiolingual, structure-based End: communicative, interaction-based

49. Methods, cont.
Adult learners may express a preference for structure-based approaches, such as the audiolingual method or grammar translation method. Why?
Learners may prefer what they know and have experienced
The failure of these methods in the classroom (and in research) led to many looking for something new (ex. the communicative method)
Learners in a classroom setting bring individual differences, which is seen as one of the downfalls of the audiolingual method
(Lightbown & Spada, 2013)

50. Methods, cont.
“Get it right from the beginning” vs. “Get it right in the end”
Beginning: audiolingual, structure-based, no errors
End: communicative, interaction-based, errors are a natural part of learning a second language
Findings from research:
Focusing on no errors leads to no communicative competence
Ex. “Opportunities for freer communication did not cause learners to do less well on measures of linguistic accuracy” (Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p. 159)
Learners benefit from opportunities for communicative practice when the focus is on understanding and expressing meaning

51. Learner-learner interaction
Discouraged in audiolingual method because of the possibility of learning errors
BUT: “although learners cannot always provide each other with the accurate grammatical input, they can offer each other genuine communicative practice” (Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p. 167)
Ex. Long & Porter (1985)
Found that learners were more likely to talk more with other learners than with native speakers (NSs)
While they produced more talk when speaking with another learner at a more advanced level, they produced fewer errors when speaking with someone at their own level

52. Why do they need to practice?
Spada et al. (2012) compared two methods of instruction:
Integrated form-focused instruction in communicative activities
Isolated form-focused instruction
Form-focused instruction: “any planned or incidental instructional activity that is intended to induce language learners to pay attention to linguistic form, where ‘form’ stands for grammatical structures, lexical items, phonological features and even sociolinguistic and pragmatic features of language” (Ellis, 2001, p. 51)

53. Why do they need to practice?
Spada et al. (2012) compared two methods of instruction:
Integrated form-focused instruction in communicative activities
Isolated form-focused instruction
In both situations the learners improved significantly over time, but:
Learners who received the integrated instruction outperformed the isolated on the oral communication task.
Learners who received the isolated instruction outperformed the integrated on the written grammar test.
What does this tell us? How does this inform teaching?

54. So, form-focused instruction…
Gives learners the opportunity to notice target features that differ from their interlanguage, and “what learners focus on can eventually lead to changes in their interlanguage systems” (Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p. 183) The evidence shows that both attention to form and communicative practice are beneficial “It is appropriate for learners to engage in meaningful language use from the very beginning of their exposure to the second language” AND “It is sometimes necessary to draw learners’ attention to their errors and to focus on certain linguistic points” (p. 184)

55. Corrective feedback (CF)
Many look at which types are more effective, but this often varies with context (classroom vs. laboratory)
Recommendation: may be best to provide different types
Explicit correction
Recasts
Clarification requests
Metalinguistic feedback
Elicitation (prompts)
Repetition

56. Corrective feedback (CF)
Some findings: Lyster and Ranta (1997) found that elicitations and metalinguistic feedback resulted in more immediate uptake Hunter (2012) found that providing CF after students had participated in student-led conversations resulted in a higher proportion of repair than providing CF during whole-class teacher-led activities It is important to consider what the goal of the activity is when weighing types of CF

57. Activity 2: Errors in classroom interaction
Handout
Adapted from Lightbown & Spada (2013)

58. Discussion
Do you think you have a preference for using a particular type of corrective feedback in your teaching? Why? Even though students may not explicitly correct each other in classroom activities, how can an activity emphasize finding the correct form?

59. Conclusions: Explicit instruction
Helping learners do their best “includes the provision of explicit, form-focused instruction and [corrective] feedback on errors”, but it does not mean that “learners should be expected to adopt the correct form or pattern immediately or consistently” (Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p. 208) You might have experienced the need to repeat feedback on the same error many, many times. Errors are natural and valuable windows into the interlanguage.

60. Conclusions: Communicative practice
Allowing learners to interact freely is beneficial, because all language is input. Cognitive processes that allow them to learn from input are working at all times. “The benefits of pair and group work far outweigh the disadvantages” (Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p. 209) Communicative practice provides learners with opportunities to test the hypotheses of their interlanguage system

61. Errors…
Are significant and occur in context (Corder, 1967) Provide us with important information about learners’ interlanguage development (Selinker, 1972) May provide evidence of learners’ abilities beyond the task at hand (remember the tool kit!) (Bardovi-Harlig, 2014) Can encourage noticing and learning during communication/interaction (Lightbown & Spada, 2013) Help teachers help learners

62. Thank you