1. Module 8
Hypnosis and Drugs

2. HYPNOSIS Hypnosis definition
Procedure in which a researcher, clinician, or hypnotists suggests that a person will experience changes in sensation, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
HYPNOSIS

3. HYPNOSIS (CONT’D)

4. HYPNOSIS (CONT’D) 20% of adults have low susceptibility
Means they can’t be easily hypnotized
65 to 70% have medium susceptibility
10 to 15% have high susceptibility
Who can be hypnotized?
Not correlated with introversion, extraversion, social position, intelligence, willpower, sex, compliance, gullibility, motivation, or placebo responsiveness
HYPNOSIS (CONT’D)

5. HYPNOSIS (CONT’D) Who is susceptible?
Individuals with the remarkable ability to respond to imaginative suggestions
Best-known test: Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale
Asks individuals to carry out a series of both simple and complex suggestions
High scorers are usually easily hypnotized
HYPNOSIS (CONT’D)

6. HYPNOSIS (CONT’D) How is someone hypnotized? Hypnotic induction
Refers to inducing hypnosis by first asking a person to either stare at an object or close his or her eyes and then suggesting that the person is becoming very relaxed
HYPNOSIS (CONT’D)

7. HYPNOSIS (CONT’D) Theories of hypnosis Altered states theory
holds that hypnosis puts a person into an altered state of consciousness, during which he or she is disconnected from reality, which results in being able to experience and respond to various suggestions
Sociocognitive theory
behaviors observed during hypnosis result not from being hypnotized, but rather from having the special ability of responding to imaginative suggestions and social pressures
HYPNOSIS (CONT’D)

8. HYPNOSIS (CONT’D) Behaviors Hypnotic analgesia Posthypnotic suggestion
refers to a reduction in pain reported by clients after they underwent hypnosis and received suggestions that reduced their anxiety and promoted relaxation
Posthypnotic suggestion
given to the subject during hypnosis about performing a particular behavior to a specific cue when the subject comes out of hypnosis
HYPNOSIS (CONT’D)

9. HYPNOSIS (CONT’D) Behaviors Posthypnotic amnesia
not remembering what happened during hypnosis if the hypnotist suggested that, upon awakening, the person would forget what took place during hypnosis
people who are instructed to not remember anything usually report not remembering, but when pressed, many of these same people admit they do in fact remember the information
HYPNOSIS (CONT’D)

10. HYPNOSIS (CONT’D) Behaviors Age regression Imagined perception
refers to subjects under hypnosis being asked to regress, or return in time, to an earlier age, such as early childhood
Imagined perception
refers to experiencing sensations, perceiving stimuli, or performing behaviors that come from one’s imagination
HYPNOSIS (CONT’D)

11. HYPNOSIS (CONT’D) Medical and therapeutic applications
Medical and dental use
used to reduce pain through hypnotic analgesia, to reduce fear and anxiety by helping individuals relax, or to help patients deal with a terminal disease by motivating them to make the best of a difficult situation
Therapeutic and behavioral uses
useful in helping clients reveal their personalities, gain insights into their lives, and arrive at solutions to their problems
HYPNOSIS (CONT’D)

12. HYPNOSIS (CONT’D)

13. DRUGS: OVERVIEW Reasons for use Psychoactive drugs
Obtaining pleasure, joy, and euphoria; meeting social expectations; giving in to peer pressure; dealing with or escaping stress, anxiety, and tension; avoiding pain; and achieving altered state of consciousness
Psychoactive drugs
Affect nervous system
May alter consciousness and awareness, influence how we sense and perceive things, and modify our moods, feelings, emotions, and thoughts
Psychoactive drugs are both legal (coffee, alcohol, tobacco) and illegal (marijuana, heroin, cocaine, LSD)
DRUGS: OVERVIEW

14. DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT’D)

15. DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT’D)
Definition of terms
Addiction
a behavioral pattern of drug abuse marked by an overwhelming compulsive desire to obtain and use the drug; even after stopping, strong tendency to relapse and begin using the drug again
Tolerance
after a person uses a drug repeatedly over a period of time, the original dose no longer produces the desired effect, thus requiring increasingly larger doses to get the same effect
DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT’D)

16. DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT’D)
Definition of terms
Dependency
refers to a change in the nervous system so that the user now needs to take the drug to prevent the occurrence of painful withdrawal symptoms
Withdrawal symptoms
painful physical and psychological symptoms that occur after a drug-dependent person stops using the drug
DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT’D)

17. DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT’D)
Use of drugs
Most recent national statistics show that almost 20 million Americans spend over $62 billion on illegal drugs each year
Drug treatment programs are more cost- effective than imprisonment
Many health professionals recommend reducing illegal drug use by spending more on
drug education
counseling
treatment
DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT’D)

18. DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT’D)

19. DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT’D)
Effects on nervous system
Drugs affect neurotransmitters, the chemical keys that search for and then either open or close chemical locks to either excite or inhibit neighboring neurons, organs, or muscles
Mimicking
some drugs produce their effects by mimicking the way neurotransmitters work
Reuptake
some drugs block reuptake
DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT’D)

20. DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT’D)
Effects on nervous system
Drugs affect brain’s reward/pleasure center
Includes the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area and involves dopamine
Some drugs directly activate the brain’s reward/pleasure center
also activated when one eats food, has sex, and does other pleasurable activities
DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT’D)

22. STIMULANTS Definition Amphetamines
Stimulants, including cocaine, amphetamines, caffeine, and nicotine, increase activity of the central nervous system and result in heightened alertness, arousal, and euphoria, and decreased appetite and fatigue
Amphetamines
1960s: heavily prescribed to treat a wide range of problems, including fatigue, depression, and obesity
1971: FDA outlawed their prescription for everything except attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy
STIMULANTS

23. STIMULANTS (CONT’D) Amphetamines
Following a “drug war” on cocaine in the late 1980s, there was a dramatic increase of a form of amphetamine called methamphetamine
manufactured in illegal home laboratories
in many countries, use or possession of methamphetamine is illegal
use is still spreading worldwide
STIMULANTS (CONT’D)

24. STIMULANTS (CONT’D) Amphetamines Methamphetamine (D-methamphetamine)
close to amphetamine in both chemical makeup and its physical and psychological effects
can be smoked or snorted
produces almost instant high
causes marked increase in blood pressure and heart rate
produces feelings of enhanced mood, alertness, and energy
STIMULANTS (CONT’D)

25. STIMULANTS (CONT’D) Amphetamines Nervous system Dangers
increases the release of dopamine and also blocks reuptake
Dangers
periods of restless activity and repetitive behaviors
later, euphoria is replaced with depression, agitation insomnia, and development of true paranoid feelings
long-term risks include stroke, liver damage, memory loss, and extreme weight loss
STIMULANTS (CONT’D)

26. STIMULANTS (CONT’D) Cocaine From coca leaves Can be sniffed or snorted
Absorbed by many of the body’s membranes
Concentrated cocaine is called crack
Effects are very similar to amphetamines
Higher doses can produce anxiety, emotional instability, and suspiciousness
STIMULANTS (CONT’D)

28. STIMULANTS (CONT’D) Cocaine Nervous system blocks reuptake of dopamine
excites dopamine receptors to produce pleasure/euphoria and glutamate to produce cravings for more drug
increased physiological and psychological arousal
can be used for a local anesthetic when applied to external areas of the body
STIMULANTS (CONT’D)

29. STIMULANTS (CONT’D) Cocaine Dangers moderate doses heavy doses
short high (10 to 30 minutes); includes bursts of energy, arousal, and alertness
heavy doses
results in serious physical and psychological problems, which may include hallucinations and feelings of bugs crawling under the skin as well as addiction
STIMULANTS (CONT’D)

30. STIMULANTS (CONT’D) Cocaine Dangers lack of appetite headaches
insomnia
irritability
heart attacks, strokes, seizures
damage to cartilage of the nose
HIV risk
respiratory failure leads to sudden death (can result from low dosages)
STIMULANTS (CONT’D)

31. STIMULANTS (CONT’D) Caffeine
Mild stimulant; produces moderate physiological and psychological arousal, including decreased fatigue and drowsiness, feelings of alertness, and improved reaction times
Nervous system
caffeine belongs to the chemical class called xanthines
blocks certain receptors (adenosine receptors)
mild physiological and psychological arousal
STIMULANTS (CONT’D)

32. STIMULANTS (CONT’D) Caffeine Dangers
mild to heavy doses of caffeine can result in addiction and dependency similar to those produced by alcohol, nicotine, and cocaine (two cups of coffee)
higher doses result in depression, tension, and anxiety
STIMULANTS (CONT’D)

33. STIMULANTS (CONT’D) Nicotine
In the US, over 70 million people use tobacco products
2 million teens begin using cigarettes each year
stimulant that triggers the brain’s reward/pleasure center to produce good feelings
low doses improve attention, concentration, and short-term memory
regular use causes addiction and dependency
leads to withdrawal
STIMULANTS (CONT’D)

34. STIMULANTS (CONT’D) Nicotine Nervous system Dangers
stimulates the production of dopamine
also stops other controlling cells from turning off the pleasure areas
Dangers
very addictive
over 400,000 American smokers die each year from lung and heart problems
causes sexual problems including impotency
withdrawal symptoms range in severity
STIMULANTS (CONT’D)

35. OPIATES Opium, morphine, heroin Opiates are classified as narcotics
About 136,000 Americans use heroin
Opiates such as opium, morphine, and heroin produce three primary effects
analgesia (pain reduction)
opiate euphoria (state between waking and sleeping)
constipation
OPIATES

36. OPIATES (CONT’D) Opium, morphine, heroin Nervous system
brain has naturally occurring receptors for opiates
produces feelings of euphoria and analgesia
gastrointestinal tract has opiate receptors (constipation)
brain also produces morphine-like chemicals called endorphins
OPIATES (CONT’D)

37. OPIATES (CONT’D) Opium, morphine, heroin Dangers
brain will produce less of its own endorphins
relies on outside opiates
person becomes addicted
withdrawal symptoms, including hot and cold flashes, sweating, muscle tremors, and stomach cramps
overdose results in depressed neural control for breathing and death from respiratory failure
OPIATES (CONT’D)

38. HALLUCINOGENS Definition LSD
Hallucinogens are psychoactive drugs that can produce strange and unusual perceptual, sensory, and cognitive experiences, which the person sees or hears but knows aren’t occurring in reality
LSD
D-lysergic acid diethylamide
Produces hallucinogenic experiences at very low doses
Visual hallucinations, perceptual distortions, increased sensory awareness, and intense psychological feelings
HALLUCINOGENS

39. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)
LSD
Nervous system
resembles serotonin
LSD binds to receptors that normally respond to serotonin; net effect is increased stimulation of these neurons
receptors are mainly located on neurons in the cerebral cortex
involved in receiving sensations, creating perceptions, thinking, and imagining
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)

40. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)
LSD
Dangers
psychological effects partially depend on the setting and the person’s state of mind
if a person is tense or anxious or in an unfamiliar setting, he or she may experience a bad trip
severe trips may lead to psychotic reactions (especially paranoid feelings) that require hospitalization
users may experience flashbacks (after the experience)
occur for no apparent reason
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)

41. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)
Psilocybin
Magic mushrooms (Psilocybe mexicana)
Possession or use of psilocybin is illegal
Low doses produce pleasant and relaxed feelings
Medium doses produce perceptual distortions in time and space
High doses produce distortions in perceptions and body image and sometimes hallucinations
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)

42. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)
Psilocybin
Nervous system
chemically related to LSD
inhibits serotonin receptors
hallucinatory effects last half as long as LSD
Dangers
no physical harm to the brain or body
potential for inducing psychotic states that may persist long after the experience is expected to end
accidental poisonings are common from eating poisonous mushrooms
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)

43. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)
Mescaline
Peyote cactus
Contains about 30 psychoactive chemicals
Most potent is mescaline
Possession of mescaline is illegal for all except those who belong to the Native American Church
2,000 times less potent than LSD
High doses: produce very clear and vivid visual hallucinations
Doesn’t impair the intellect or cloud consciousness
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)

44. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)
Mescaline
Nervous system
reaches maximum concentration in the brain about 30 to 120 minutes after eating a button of peyote cactus
increases the activity of neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine
activates the sympathetic nervous system
produces physiological arousal: increased heart rate, temperature, and sometimes vomiting
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)

45. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)
Mescaline
Dangers
can last six to eight hours
users may experience headaches and vomiting
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)

46. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)
Designer drugs
Manufactured or synthetic drugs designed to resemble already existing illegal psychoactive drugs and produce or mimic their psychoactive effects
MDMA, ecstasy
Resemble both mescaline and amphetamine
Heightens sensation, giving a euphoric rush, raising body temperature, and creating feelings of warmth and empathy
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)

47. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)
Designer drugs
Nervous system
cause large amounts of dopamine and serotonin to be released
afterward: users may feel depressed and have attention memory deficits
MDMA may cause brain damage
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)

48. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)
Designer drugs
Dangers
recreational trips can last six hours
effects can include euphoria, high energy, jaw clenching, teeth grinding, increased body temperature, and insomnia
higher doses include panic, rapid heart beat, high body temperature, paranoia, and psychotic-like symptoms
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT’D)

49. ALCOHOL History and use
first brewery appeared in Egypt in about B.C.
safe alcohol to drink is ethyl alcohol
level of alcohol is measured in percentage in the blood: blood alcohol content or BAC
after three or four drinks in one hour, BAC will range from 0.08 to 0.1
national legal definition of being drunk is 0.08
drink is defined: one cocktail, 5oz glass of wine, one 12oz bottle of beer
effects the nervous system and results in behavioral and emotional changes
ALCOHOL

51. ethyl alcohol is a psychoactive drug classified as a depressant because it depresses activity of the central nervous system
alcohol seems like a stimulant but later depresses physiological and psychological responses
after a few drinks (0.01 to 0.05 BAC), causes friendliness and loss of inhibitions //again, numbers?//
after four or five drinks ( BAC), impairs motor coordination, cognitive abilities, decision making, and speech
After many drinks (0.4 BAC and higher) may cause coma or death
ALCOHOL (CONT’D)

52. ALCOHOL (CONT’D) Nervous system
Affects many parts of the nervous system
Stimulates GABA neural receptors, leads to feeling less anxious and less inhibited
Also impairs the anterior cingulate cortex, monitors the control of motor actions
Drinkers fail to recognize their impaired motor performance (driving)
High doses: depresses vital breathing reflexes in the medulla (brain stem)
May lead to death
ALCOHOL (CONT’D)

53. ALCOHOL (CONT’D) Dangers
Hangover; upset stomach, dizziness, fatigue, headache, and depression
Repeated and heavy drinking can result in tolerance, addiction, and dependency
Withdrawal symptoms
Shaking, nausea, anxiety, diarrhea, hallucinations, and disorientation
Blackout
Repeated and heavy drinking can result in liver damage, alcoholism, and brain damage
ALCOHOL (CONT’D)

54. ALCOHOL (CONT’D) Risk factors
Of 109 million people who drink alcohol, 10 to 14 million will develop alcoholism
Psychological risk factors
Children of either one or both alcoholic parents can develop unusual, abnormal, or maladaptive psychological and emotional traits
Childhood risk factors include being easily bored, engaging in risk-taking or sensation- seeking behaviors, and acting impulsive or overemotional when faced with stressful situations
ALCOHOL (CONT’D)

55. ALCOHOL (CONT’D) Risk factors Genetic risk factors
Refer to inherited biases or predispositions that increase the potential for alcoholism
Genetic factors contribute 50 to 60% to the reasons a person becomes an alcoholic
ALCOHOL (CONT’D)

56. ALCOHOL (CONT’D) Alcoholism
Heavy drinking (sometimes a quart a day) for a long period of time (usually many years)
Addicted and dependent on alcohol (must drink to avoid withdrawal symptoms)
Continue to use alcohol despite developing major substance-related life problems
neglecting family, work, school duties
repeated legal or criminal incidents
experiencing difficulties in personal or social relationships

57. MARIJUANA Use and effects Most widely used illegal drug
Medical marijuana
can be effective in treating nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy, appetite loss in AIDS patients, eye disease (glaucoma), muscle spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis, and some forms of pain
Gateway effect
says that using marijuana leads young people to try harder drugs
MARIJUANA

58. Psychoactive drug whose primary active ingredient is THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)
Found in leaves of the cannabis plant
THC is rapidly absorbed by the lungs (while smoking)
5 to 10 minutes produces a hit that lasts for several hours
Depending on the user’s state of mind, marijuana can either heighten or distort pleasant or unpleasant experiences, moods, or feelings
MARIJUANA (CONT’D)

59. MARIJUANA (CONT’D) Nervous system
THC receptors are located throughout the brain, including the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, limbic system, cerebellum, and basal ganglia
the brain itself makes a chemical similar to THC
anandamide
currently under study
MARIJUANA (CONT’D)

60. MARIJUANA (CONT’D) Dangers
Can cause temporary changes in cognitive functioning
Can temporarily decrease secretion of various hormones and effectiveness of the immune system
Respiratory problems like bronchitis and asthma
High doses: may cause toxic psychoses, including delusions, paranoia, and feelings of terror
MARIJUANA (CONT’D)