1. Energy Conservation
Transportation

2. Fossil Fuels At current consumption rates: We need to:
Oil reserves will run out in less than 40 years
Natural gas will last about 60 years
Coal supplies will last for at least 200 years, maybe longer
We need to:
Transition to renewable energy sources
Employ energy conservation

3. Energy conservation: The practice of reducing energy use to extend the lifetimes of our nonrenewable energy supplies, to be less wasteful, and to reduce our environmental impact

4. As individuals we can make conscious choices to reduce our own energy consumption…
Driving less (walk, ride bike)
Carpooling
Mass transit (train, bus, airplane)
Turn off lights when rooms are not being used
Unplug cords when not in use (vampire electronics)
Turn down/up thermostats
Invest in efficient machines & appliances

5. As a society, we can improve transportation…
Light trucks (including SUVs, minivans, and pickup trucks) account for ½ of total automobile sales
Hybrid vehicles account for 2-3% of total sales
Average car efficiency:
1998: 22.1 mpg
2006: 21.0 mpg
We are vulnerable when it comes to petroleum/oil: we use more oil than any other fossil fuel & we import more than we produce. We have had the technology to improve fuel efficiency. We have a months supply stored underground; potentially more in ANWR
We also pay less for gasoline than most people in other countries. We pay about 2 and a half times less per gallon of gas than drivers in many european countries
Transportation accounts
for 2/3rds of U.S. oil use
Failure to improve vehicular
fuel economy has greatly added
to U.S. oil consumption

6. Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFÉ) standards
Enacted in1975
Purpose: Reduce energy consumption by increasing the fuel economy of cars & light trucks
Sets mile per gallon standards (saves us pump!)
Standards dictated by CAFÉ must be achieved by automakers
Standards are achieved through better engine design, efficiency and weight reduction
Follows guidelines established by the EPA
Estimated to have saved over 55 billion gallons of fuel annually & a 10% reduction in CO2 emissions

7. Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFÉ) standards
CAFE standards are regulated by DOT’s National Highway Traffic and Safety Administration (NHTSA). 
NHTSA sets and enforces the CAFE standards, while the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) calculates average fuel economy levels for manufacturers, and also sets related GHG (greenhouse gas) standards.

8. Current CAFÉ standards
2012 NHTSA established a new standard of mpg for passenger car & light trucks for model years
EPA also stipulating an allowable amount of 163 grams/mile of CO2 emissions
For the first time, NHTSA & EPA are developing standards for medium and heavy-duty vehicle efficiency & GHG standards (March 2016)
Will require all models to be out by 2021

9. Current CAFÉ standards
In addition, manufacturers will now be required to:
Identify vehicles capable of running on an alternative fuel
Must displaying fixture on the exterior of vehicle
Add text to owners manual describing the capabilities and benefits of using alternative fuels
Will require all models to be out by 2021

10. Current CAFÉ standards
The new standards will:
Improve energy efficiency
Reduce petroleum consumption
Increase the availability of alternative fuel vehicles
Promote the advancement of innovative technologies
Lower GHG emissions (mitigate climate change & improve air quality)
Will require all models to be out by 2021

11. Current CAFÉ standards
The new standards also encourage early adoption & introduction into the marketplace of advanced technologies by providing:
Incentives for electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles & fuel cell vehicles
Incentives for natural gas vehicles
Credits for technologies w/potential to achieve real-world GHG reductions & fuel economy improvements that are not captured by the standard test procedures
Will require all models to be out by 2021

12. Cars & Air Pollution: Catalytic Converter
Installed on automobiles since 1975
What it does: Reduces the amount of NOx and CO emissions
How it’s done: Platinum or palladium are used to oxidize N & C
Vehicles produce the following
air pollutants:
NOx
COx (CO and CO2)
VOCs PM

13. 1 gallon of gasoline weighs 6 lbs
1 gallon of gasoline weighs 6 lbs. When burned, the carbon in it combines with oxygen in the air to produce nearly 20 lbs of carbon dioxide
Internal Combustion Engine wastes about 75-80% of the energy in its fuel. It’s not very efficient

14. Diesel fuel (vs conventional gasoline)
Contains fewer hydrogen atoms per carbon atom than conventional gasoline
So it requires less refining during production process
Vehicles are often more powerful & fuel efficient
Engines last longer
Emit about 15% less GHG
Downside: produces more particulate matter

15. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
Natural gas compressed into cylinders
Most CNG vehicles are buses, trucks and cars that belong to fleets
Advantages:
Natural gas is cleanest-burning fuel due to its simple structure
It emits less NOx, VOCs, PM & CO2
As fuel efficient as gasoline
Currently cheaper than gasoline

16. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
90% propane + butane
These gases are by-products made from natural gas and crude oil processing so supplies of LPG depend on how much natural gas & oil are refined for other purposes
Type of vehicles that use LPG are mostly forklifts
Disadvantages: Costs as much as gasoline but has 25% lower energy content & is not as widely available as gasoline.
Advantages: NOx & VOC emissions are 60% less than gasoline & is non-toxic

17. More Alternative Fuel Vehicles...

18. Biofuels: Ethanol & Biodiesel
Ethanol (for gasoline engines)
An alcohol, the same one found in alcoholic beverages
Made by converting starches & sugars from plant material into ethanol and carbon dioxide
Made from corn, sugarcane, wood chips, crop waste or switch grass
90% of ethanol produced in US comes from corn & corn by-products
Biodiesel (for diesel engines)
A substitute for regular petroleum diesel
Produced by extracting oil from algae or plants such as soybeans and palm

19. Ethanol (Gasohol) Ethanol is usually mixed with gasoline E-10 E-85
10% ethanol and 90% gasoline
Has a higher oxygen content than gasoline alone & produces less of some air pollutants when combusted
Any gasoline engine runs well on this
E-85
85% ethanol and 15% gasoline
Found in certain mid-west states, especially corn-growing states
“Flex-fuel vehicles” can run off of E-85 but few gas stations offer this mixture

20. Gasoline used to be mixed with an additive called MTBE, but it was discovered to be a potential carcinogen and it was being found in groundwater from leaking fuel tanks.
Now cleaner burning gasoline, called Reformulated Gasoline (RFG), no longer contains MTBE, but contains 10% ethanol instead.

21. Ethanol
US is the world leader in ethanol production, 34 billion liters in 2008
However ethanol & biodiesel make up only about 0.6% of US energy supply
Brazil is the world’s 2nd largest ethanol producer
Sugarcane, easily grown in tropical environment
40% of all cars in Brazil are flex-fuel vehicles
Unlike corn, which must be replanted every year, sugarcane is replanted every 6 years & harvested by hand
This reduces the amount of fossil fuel energy needed to harvest the crop
President George W. Bush proposed US produce 133 billion liters of ethanol by 2017
President Obama issued a directive to accelerate U.S. investment in & production of biofuels in 2009
90% of the cars in Brazil run on either ethanol or gasohol (a mixture of gasoline & ethanol). .
Both wanted to reduced dependence on foreign oil & it would also help reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
Sweden is another country big on flex fuel ethanol vehicles

22. Advantages of Biofuels: Ethanol
Potentially renewable
Can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels
Reduces trade deficit
Possibly more environmentally friendly than fossil fuels

23. Disadvantages of Biofuels: Ethanol
Lower gas mileage
The carbon bonds in alcohol contain less energy
Higher cost of food
However, if we can find a way to produce ethanol from food waste like corn stalks & husks, this could be help
Loss of agricultural land
Land that could be devoted to growing food
Possible net increase in greenhouse gas emissions
Growing corn to produce ethanol uses a significant amount of fossil fuel energy
CO2
A vehicle will need more gasohol to go the same distance it could go on gasoline alone

24. Biodiesel Alternative to petroleum diesel fuel B-20
However, it is more expensive
B-20
80% petroleum diesel 20% biodiesel
Available at some gas stations scattered around the US & can be used in any diesel engine without modification

25. Biodiesel SVO (straight vegetable oil)
With a commercial sold kit, any diesel vehicle can be modified to run on 100% vegetable oil
Typically obtained as a waste product from restaurants & filtered for use as a fuel
Some municipalities like Portland, Maine have community based SVO recycling centers
Although there is unlikely enough waste vegetable oil to significantly reduce fossil fuel consumption, SVO is a potential transition fuel that may temporarily reduce our use of petroleum
Kits cost around $800 & we still have yet to see if using straight vegetable oil might entail further costs, such as reduced longevity or greater engine maintainance

26. A bus fueled by vegetable oil
A bus fueled by vegetable oil. Students from Dartmouth College drove & maintained the bus as part of a program to educate people around the US about renewable fuels & energy conservation

27. Biodiesel Advantages Disadvantages
Cuts down on emissions compared to regular diesel fuel
Non-toxic
Bio-degradable
Costs just slightly more than diesel fuel

28. Algal Biodiesel
Algae are photosynthetic microorganisms that can be grown anywhere
1/2 of algae composition is oil, which can be harvested as a fuel source
Out of all the biodiesel sources, algae…
Produce the greatest yield of fuel per hectare of land area
Utilize the least amount of energy & fertilizer per quantity of fuel
In the US most biodiesel comes from soybean oil or processed vegetable oil. However, scientists are working on ways to produce large quantities of biodiesel directly from wood – especially wastewood from logging and sawmills
One 2008 study reported that algae produce 15 to 300 times more fuel per area used than conventional crops

29. Algal Biodiesel
Algae can be grown on marginal lands, in brackish waterways, on rooftops, or even on ships
Emits CO2, but emits CO2 that was recently removed from the atmosphere through photosynthesis
Venice, Italy: they plan to harvest algae growing on ships & convert it into oil that could fuel a power plant & provide 50% of their electricity needs
Can be grown in places that are not traditionally thought of as agricultural space

30. Hydrogen as a Fuel
Gas at room temperature; contains no carbon so it’s the cleanest burning of all the fuels
It’s abundant in nature, but rarely exists by itself.
Hydrogen tends to bond with other molecules like water, biomass or natural gas (CH4)
Producing hydrogen gas requires separating it from these compounds using heat or electricity
Most commercially available hydrogen is produced by burning natural gas to extract its hydrogen
CO2 is a waste product of this combustion

31. Electrolysis: Producing hydrogen from water
Using an electrical current to “split” water into hydrogen & oxygen
About 5% of our hydrogen is produced this way
95% of hydrogen is made from a less clean process of steam reforming, which uses natural gas.
Steam reacts with methane at very high temperatures and the reaction yields CO and Hydrogen.
Energy scientists are looking at ways to better produce hydrogen that are cleaner.
Although renewable energy sources like solar and wind cannot produce electricity constantly, it can be stored until it is needed & used to generate hydrogen
If we could generate electrolysis using a clean, nondepletable energy resource, hydrogen could potentially be a sustainable energy carrier

32. Hydrogen can be used in a fuel cell to power an electric vehicle
Fuel cell= a device that operates like a battery
How a battery works
Electricity is generated by a reaction between two chemical reactants, like nickel & cadmium
This reaction is in a closed container to which no additional materials can be added
Eventually the reactants are used up & the battery is dead
In a fuel cell, however, the reactants are continuously added
The cell produces electricity for as long as it is supplied with fuel
Chemical energy is converted into electricity, heat & water

33. Hydrogen Fuel Cell
Electricity is generated by the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen from the atmosphere
2H2 + O2  electrical energy + 2H2O + heat

34. The movement of protons in one direction and electrons in another direction generates an electrical current

36. When powered by water (electrolysis)

37. cathode of a device is the terminal where current flows out
cathode of a device is the terminal where current flows out. When powered by water (electrolysis)

38. Hydrogen Advantages Disadvantages 80% efficient Produces water
Fossil fuel power plants are only 35-50% efficient
Renewable resource
Would use an electric motor
More efficient than internal combustion engines
Ordinary water (ocean or freshwater) can be used to obtain hydrogen
Does not destroy wildlife habitats and has minimal environmental impact.
It’s only bi-product is one greenhouse gas
Hydrogen can be stored in compounds to make it safe to handle.
Produces water
Water vapor is #1 greenhouse gas
Takes energy to produce hydrogen from either water or methane (natural gas)
Need to find efficient process
Need a SAFE distribution center. Not many are currently available
Hydrogen is highly flammable and has to be handled carefully
Vehicles would have to be redesigned to work with fuel tanks much larger
$ expensive
Don’t want a tank rupture, in which case hydrogen might catch fire or explode
Internal combustion engine converts about 20% fo the fuel’s energy into motion whereas an electric motor can convert 60%

39. Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Powered by a rechargeable electric battery
& a small internal combustion engine
Highest efficiency and the lowest emissions levels of
any vehicle available in the U.S.
A hybrid vehicle attempts to increase the mileage & reduce the
emissions of a gasoline powered car significantly while overcoming
the shortcomings of an electric car

41. 2.The fuel tank is the energy storage device for the gasoline engine
1. It has an engine
It is smaller than on a gas-only car & uses advanced technologies to reduce emissions & increase efficiency
2.The fuel tank is the energy storage device for the gasoline engine
Gasoline has a much higher energy density than batteries do
3. Advanced electronics allow the electric motor to act as a generator
When it needs to the motor can draw energy from the batteries to accelerate the car
When acting as a generator, it can slow down the car & return energy to the battery

42. 5. Batteries are the energy storage device for the electric motor
4. The generator is similar to an electric motor, but it acts only to produce electrical power
5. Batteries are the energy storage device for the electric motor
Unlike the gasoline in the fuel tank, which can power only the gasoline engine, the electric motor on a hybrid car can put energy into the batteries as well as draw from them

43. Electric motor powers the car from 0-35mph
Gasoline engine powers car above 35mph
Gasoline engine also used to start the car
When brakes are applied, some of the energy is transferred from the brakes to recharge the electric motor’s battery
This type of hybrid is known as a “full hybrid”
Ex. Toyota Prius

44. Hybrid vehicles Advantages Disadvantages Good gas mileage
Though some offer more power at the expense of gas mileage. This is usually in the case of hybrid SUVs
Lower operating costs
Produce less NOx, VOCs & CO2
Amenities within car
Initial price of vehicle
Though govt. does offer tax incentives to buy these types of vehicles
This means you get $ back from govt. (usually a few thousand dollars)
Vehicle performance (speed)

45. Plug-in Hybrids
Gasoline-electric vehicles that can be plugged in for recharging
Can be plugged into a 120-volt outlet & be charged at home, primarily during the night
They run on the stored energy for much of a typical day’s driving- up to miles per charge
When the charge is used up, they keep running on the hybrid mode
They don’t need to be plugged into operate, but plugging in allows the vehicle to travel the first miles without using the combustion engine 45

46. Plug-in Hybrids Disadvantages:
They require more electrical energy storage than traditional hybrids, so a lighter and more powerful lithium ion battery would need to replace the current nickel metal hybrid battery and that technology is still not readily available
Vehicle availability is also a problem
Once they do become more commercially available, they will cost $2,000-$3,000 more than conventional hybrids or about $7,000 more than gasoline vehicles
Advantages:
They save money on gasoline
Can accelerate from 0-60 mph in less than 9 seconds & can sustain a top speed of 97 mph
Higher initial costs are partly offset by lower operating costs 46