1. Trilingual Education in Context – Lessons from China
Professor Anwei Feng
University of Nottingham Ningbo China
Astana, Kazakhstan, on Nov. 2016

2. Highlights of TTEiChina Project
Fuller Report

3. The Scale Some Statistics
Involved researchers in 11 ‘minority regions’ in China
Engaged about 50 researchers
Carried out for the last decade
Outputs – 6 books plus numerous papers …

4. Outcomes of TE
We identified three major outcomes as consequences of trilingual education:
Balanced trilingualism
Strong competence in all the three languages.
Balanced trilinguals exist, but are extremely rare

5. Additive Trilingualism
(development in pupils of) Native speaker competences in L1 (pupils’ home language) and very strong competence in L2 (Mandarin Chinese), given L2’s wide use and absolute importance for life opportunities in China, and peer appropriate competence in L3 (a foreign language, usually English). Peer appropriate competence in L3 means oral proficiency and literacy in L3 comparable to that of the peers of the majority Han group.
Theoretical bases – bilingualism and cognition; threshold theory
Note: Native speaker competence in L1 may refer to both oral and literary abilities, but it may refer to oracy only in cases in which the written script of L1 does not exist.

6. Subtractive Trilingualism
(a situation in which minority pupils acquire) competence in L2 (Chinese), and perhaps limited competence in L3 (usually English) at the expense of their L1 (home language).
In this situation, L1 may be under threat/pressure to be replaced by L2 where the latter is not only taught as a school subject but used as the medium of instruction.
This may lead to loss of cultural or ethnic identity, low self-esteem, and marginalisation.

7. Strong Models
We identified strong models to foster additive trilingualism
Accretive model
Aiming to develop strong L1, and then L2 and then L3; to improve all performance.
Outcomes: L1 maintained, identity confidently claimed, overall academic performance good (or improved)
Balanced model
Aiming to develop both L1 and L2 with required L3 competence
Outcomes: L1 & L2 strong, ethnic identity and harmony
Features:
Area with high ethno-linguistic vitality of L1
Using L1, or both L1 and L2, as MoI (in places where one minority group dominates or two groups are mixed)
Stronger sense of ethnicity and presence of L1 and L2 languages and cultures in schools and societies
Given favourable conditions, L3 is promoted robustly as school subjects

8. Weak Models Models leading to subtractive trilingualism Features
Transitional model (usually by shifting from L1 to L2 as MoI early)
Aiming to use and learn L2 only
Outcomes: eventually subtractive trilingualism
Depreciative model
Aiming overtly or covertly for monolingualism, ignoring L1
Outcomes: subtractive trilingualism and linguistic and cultural assimilation
Features
May be mixed Han and minority groups or a single minority group where ethno-linguistic vitality is weak
Pupils’ L1 is seen as useless or deemed useful only as a stepping stone in the first few years in schooling.
(From onset or eventually) L2 used as MoI in classrooms

9. The Continuum
No clear borderline between the strong and the weak, but a continuum.
(e.g., Transition models, if carefully designed, can be effective)

10. Outputs Representative Books: Feng, A.W. & Adamson, B. (2015)
Liu, Q.G. (2014; 2013; 2012)
Yuan, Y.C., Hu, D.Y. & Feng, Z.W. (2015)
Wang, G. (2016) …

11. Research Impact Examples:
Trilingual teacher training programmes in Qinghai, Sichuan and Xinjiang that have a potential to influence the students in these areas
Direct conversations with policy makers (in Bangkok, Suzhou, etc.)
On policy making (evidence to show our work influenced language policy making in Myanmar)

12. Societies and Websites
International Association for Multilingual Education (IAME)
Chinese Society for Multilingualism and Multilingual Education (CSMME)
IAME
CSMME
Important platforms for discussing academic research and exchanging ideas for practice

13. Challenges Hidden Assimilation (common at official level)
Weakening of minority language vitality:
Safe – 6-7
Vulnerable – 34-36
Endangered – about 60-70
Critically endangered – 4
Extinct – 4

14. Other Issues Diversity of Context vs Standardisation of Practice
Urbanisation leading to weakening of ethno-linguistic vitality
Impact of mass media and social media on minority languages
Strong promotion of Mandarin Chinese to the detriment of minority languages …

15. Argument
What model to adopt or develop in a particular region rarely depends on its theoretical or methodological soundness, but is determined by numerous contextual factor including:
Official policies at various levels
ethnolinguistic vitality
sense of ethnicity
geography
demography
history
other socio-economic factors
...

16. Thank you!
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