1. Module 21 - Information Processing
The Phenomenon of Memory

2. Midterm II Next week--- on Wednesday, December 9, 18:30
Modules 15,18,19,20,21,22

3. Memory
The process by which information is stored and retained for later use
Learning that persists over time
Study of memory:
How do we Encode, Store, and Retrieve information.
Memory loss – loss of recent memory
Outstanding memory: The case of Shereshevskii
the man who could hold 70 digits in his mind & repeat both bakcward and forward!
Memory is ANY INDICATION THAT LEARNING HAS PERSISTED OVER TIME:.
Ability to store and retrieve info.
Started
unrevealing the underlying dynamics of memory by studying memories extremes...
People with extraordinary capacities or no ability to form memories or no ability to form certain memories- but not others.
WHO WOULD BE MORE LIKELY TO STUDY MEMORY??? – COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGISTS

4. Memory as Information Processing
A model that traces the flow of the information as it is mentally processed.
similar to a computer
One way of studying memory – the more recent and well-accepted model- is to resemble human memory system to a computer processor.
TRACE THE FLOW OF THE INFORMATION AS IT IS MENTALLY PROCESSED.
write to file (encode)
save to disk (store)
read from disk (retrieve)
the information becomes inaccessible (forgetting)
Forgetting: Info becomes inaccessible bc. Of hardware problems or deletion of a file or problems in retrieval.

5. How do we process Information?
Encoding
Retrieval
the processing of information into the memory system --extracting meaning
The process of accessing information in the memory
Storage
the retention of encoded information over time-- short term or long term

6. A Simplified Memory Model
Unconscious processing
External
events
Sensory
memory
Working / Short-term
Long-term
Sensory input
Attention to important
or novel information
Encoding
Retrieving
The immediate and brief recording of sensory information
Relatively permanent and limitless storage, including knowledge, skills and experiences
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly

7. Encoding: getting information in
Sensory Memory
Working/ Short term Memory
Automatic- Effortless encoding of incidental information
Space, time, frequency
Enables multitasking
Difficult to shut off
Some processing becomes automatic through practice
Effortful – Through conscious effort & attention
Rehearsal
ENCODİNG:
How we selectively encode sights, sounds, and other sensations and transfer them into our memory system (-- within the 3 memories)
Getting information into the system:
Translate inputs (sensory information) into neural language.
Start by asking----
Can you trace back the path you followed while coming to class... (effortless)
What are the 3 process of memory? (effortful)
Some encoding occurs automatically – some require more effortful processing.
Automatic Processing: Effortless encoding of incidental information
We encode an enormous amount of info often with little or no effort.
Most information about space, time and frequency is automatically recalled.
It encodes automatically but at the same time it is difficult to shut-off.
-- hear a word in your native language – impossible not to register its meaning.
Effortful Processing: Most other stimuli require conscious effort and attention .
To learn novel names, facts, skills.
Can be improved by:Rehearsal - conscious repetition of information

8. WHAT do we encode: Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) and Bahrick (1993)
Ebbinghaus: Conscious repetition of information (nonsense syllables such as PIV, KOB)
More repetition  more time spent rehearsing  better recall
Additional repetition  better recall and retention
Longer the time between rehearsals (spacing effect)  better retention
Bahrick: Learning quickly results in forgetting quickly
Important implications for your mid-terms!
Disperse your studying – leave time for rehearsal
Distributed rehearsal (spaced study) works better than cramming
The amount remembered depends on the time spent on learning
even after initial learning, additional rehearsal improves retention.
Distributed rehearsal yields better long- term retention than massed practice --Spacing Effect
If you would try to learn the names of your classmates--- better to distribute this process over time rather than trying to do it just at once.
The longer the space between rehearsal sessions – the better retention.
Example: while studying for comprehensive exams –
Rather than just trying to memorize everyhing all at once – if you practice over time - spread your learning – will result in better outcomeç
LEARNING QUICKLY ALSO RESULTS IN FORGETTING QUICKLY.
WİTH NAMES, NUMBERS AS WELL- rehearse wait rehearse again wait ....

9. Rehearsal does not benefit all rehearsed information equally: serial position effect
Primacy Effect
Recency Effect
Why all at once is not good?
İf people are given a lst to memorize and then immediately asked to recall the items --- experience a phenomenon called as the serial position effect.
Remember first and last items better than those in the middle.
Fresh memory in the beginning. Have time to rehearse. (primacy effect)
Pay attention to the last – still in the memory (recency effect)
Those in the middle – gets lost. Intereference occurs with info from the beginning or the end.
AFTER A DELAY - SHIFT ATTENTION :
SO ONLY PRIMACY EFFECT- remember items in the beginning of the list best

10. Another way to improve encoding
Memory aids – mnemonic devices
Peg words: (acoustic codes)
Hasan iki salak osman dört (H2SO4)
Video (Zimbardo 11,25)
Some other techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices
For a shopping list- visualize yourself cooking the dish!
Other ways to improve encoding – besides simple rehearsal?
especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Instead of a list of gorcery items, remember a dish.... 10

11. HOW do we encode? I scream or ice cream? Create mental pictures
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Meaning
(semantic
encoding)
Imagery
(visual
encoding)
Organization
Still just repeating/rehearsing is not enough to recall.
May need to PROCESS INFO by:
Encoding its meaning
Encoding its image
By mentally organizing it.
Meaning (semantic encoding):
when processing verbal information, we usually encode its meaning, associating it with the context.
Eye-screem, ice-cream or I scream. -- ssounds the same – meaning depends on the context!
Imagery: mental pictures.
More easier to recall information that can be encoded visually.
Easier to remember conrete words- words that have visual mental images
In a list of concrete and abstract words –more likely to remember concrete ones
Remember typewriter, cigarette fire than inherent, will, process....
I scream or ice cream?
- Associate with the context
Create mental pictures
Chunks
Hierarchies

12. How do we organize information for encoding?
A: Iujhgyegdbnjkofiutyhs
B: Iuj hgy egd bnj kof iut
Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units
often occurs automatically
Hierarchies
Grouping information into few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts of facts.
(the previpus figure of encoding)

13. How do we process Information?
Encoding
Retrieval
the processing of information into the memory system --extracting meaning
The process of accessing information in the memory
Storage
the retention of encoded information over time-- short term or long term

14. Three storages of memory
Within the information-processing model, 3 types of memories are distinguished:
Sensory Memory
Working/Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory

15. How and where do we store information?
Sensory Memory: preserves fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli
Iconic Memory (visual memory)
a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second
Like taking snapshops of stimuli
Can store large amounts of information for brief periods
Echoic Memory (auditory memory)
Storing auditory stimuli
Last longer than iconic memory.
The first storage system is the least durable most temporary system. A fleeting system.
The initial recording of sensory stimuli in the memory system.
Iconic memory – a fleeting photographic memory.
İf no iconic memory – you would lose track of what you see- with every blink.
Lets you see things as a continuos film
Echoic memory – auditory processing
In a conversation, you can repeat the last few words spoken. Auditory echo disappears slowly
İf no--- would not connect sounds.

16. Read the digits for 1 second, look away & write them in order

17.
Read the top row of digits, one per second, then look away and repeat them back in order. Continue until you make a mistake.

18. Short term memory span:
The average capacity of
STM is 7 items of information

19. How and where do we store information?
Working / Short Term Memory: a small fraction of information receives attention and effortful encoding
STM is limited in duration (a few seconds)
STM is limited in capacity (about 7 bits of information)– magical number 7
Better echoic (auditory) than iconic (visual)
Short term recall for about as many words as you can speak in 2 seconds.
Working memory interacts with long-term memory
Unless we meaningfully encode or rehearse that information – it can disappear quickly
Like the screen of the computer.
New info entered by the keyboard and the old info retireved from the hard disk show up in the screen.
STM contains both new sensory input and material pulled from the long term memory.
Our short term memory is sligtly better for random digits than for random letters because letters’ sounds can interereç