1. Agenda
Course Updates
Review of Maintenance & Generalization Strategies
Article Review Presentations
Groups 1 (Sara et al.) & 2 (Scott et al.)
Discrete Trial Training & Pivotal Response Training
Class-wide Peer Tutoring

2. Upcoming Assignments?
Simulations- Understand evidence-based practice and practice using teaching techniques
Evidence-based practice (due May 26th)
AT/AAC simulation (due June 2nd)

3. Link to Work Sample Instructional Plan Objectives
Antecedent Strategies
Procedures
Rationale/Research [Evidence-based Practice Briefs]
Plan for fading
Consequence Strategies
Procedures for Reinforcement & Response
Plan for Fading
Maintenance Strategies
Generalization Strategies

4. Antecedent: Behavior you want to Consequence: Natural Cue
that triggers
[or should
trigger]….
Behavior you want to
Increase or Decrease
Consequence:
Natural
outcome that
consistently
occurs after
behavior
Antecedent Strategies
-Time Delay
-Prompting
-Pre-correction
-Modeling
-Chaining
Consequence Strategies
-Differential
Reinforcement
-Shaping
-Error Correction
Instructional Design
-Range of Responses
-Range of Examples
-Positive Examples
-Negative Examples
-Minimally Different
-Maximally Different

5. Teaching for Generalization & Maintenance?

6. General Case Programming
1. Define the instructional universe (IU).---How?
-Person-Centered Planning/ File Review/ IEP
2. Define the range of relevant stimulus & response variation within that IU.—
-How?
-Task Analysis
3. Select examples for the IU for use in teaching and probe testing.—How?
Positive & Negative Examples
4. Sequence teaching examples.---How?
Juxtapose maximally different, then minimally different examples.
5. Teach the examples.---How?
Using Antecedent & Consequence Strategies
6. Test with non-trained probe examples— How?

7. Antecedent: Behavior you want to Consequence:
Outline a plan for testing if student can generalize and maintain the skills.
Antecedent:
Natural Cue
that triggers
[or should
trigger]….
Behavior you want to
Increase or Decrease
Consequence:
Natural
outcome that
consistently
occurs after
behavior
Antecedent
Generalization
Strategies
-Consider features of
cue/trigger
-Vary those features
-Natural Setting
-Sufficient Exemplars
Consequence Generalization
Strategies
-Natural consequences
-Intermittent Schedule of
Reinforcement
-Differential reinforcement
in “generalization” condition
rather than original condition
General Case Design
-Consider range of
Behaviors/Responses
-Select Teaching
Examples
-Select Probing/
Generalization

8. Teaching Skill Maintenance
Maintenance: skill continuing to occur for as long as it is needed without having to be taught again.
Common error in teaching is that the skill is learned and generalized, but not practiced sufficiently beyond initial learning
Maintenance strategies should be used in addition to generalization strategies

9. Maintenance Strategies
Overlearning
Continue practicing a skill well beyond initial mastery.
Leading to automaticity
Trying to build behavior into a “habit”
Overlearning opportunities should be at least 50% of the opportunities necessary for the student to initially learn the objective.

10. Intermittent Reinforcement- variable reinforcement schedule
Distributed Practice
Practice during distributed learning sessions
Practice is spread out across the day (vs massed practice)
Practice 1 wk, 2wks, 4 wks later to ensure retention of skills
Intermittent Reinforcement- variable reinforcement schedule
Using a maintenance schedule- build in practice for infrequently used skills

11. Teaching self-management & self-instructional skills
Start teaching students to manage their prompts and performance
Teach “self-talk” of what steps or what each cue should be “saying” to them, etc.

12. Evidence Based Practice Briefs http://autismpdc. fpg. unc

13. Antecedent Strategies to Establish Stimulus Control??

14. Antecedent Strategies to Establish Stimulus Control
Antecedent Strategies to Establish Stimulus Control?? Prompting & Time Delay
Want to pair with the naturally occurring antecedent that should trigger the behavior.
Prompting
Most-to-Least Intrusive (e.g., starting with Physical prompt then fading to a verbal prompt)
Most-to-Least Examples:
Practice with a partner to teach the skill of: “waving and saying Hi”
Least-to-Most Intrusive (e.g., starting with a Gestural/Pointing prompt then more intense to verbal, then physical if student is still not giving the correct response)
Least-to-Most Examples:
Practice with a partner to teach the same skill of “waving and saying Hi”

15. What makes a good prompt?

16. What makes a good prompt?
Increases likelihood of correct responding
Focuses attention on relevant features of task (Sd)
Ease of delivery
Ease of removal across trials
Good prompts are determined by the demands of the task AND the presenting skills of the learner.
As weak as possible (least intrusive)
Should be faded as rapidly as possible

17. Fading Prompts

18. Fading Prompts
Increasing Assistance (Least-to-Most Prompts)—start with least intrusive and add more intrusive if necessary.
Graduated Guidance (Hand-over-hand, physical guidance)—reducing full guidance to “shadowing”.
Time Delay—wait several seconds before prompting to allow student to respond.
Decreasing Assistance (Most-to-Least Prompts)—move to less intrusive prompt when behavior occurs reliably

19. Shaping?

20. Teaching Applications: Shaping
Defined
Teaching new behaviors through differential reinforcement of successive approximations of correct responding.
Differential reinforcement for shaping means that responses that meet a certain criterion are reinforced, while those that do not meet the criterion are not.
The Antecedent and reward are constant. What changes is the rule for delivering the reward. The goal is to improve the precision of the new skill.

21. Shaping: How would you use shaping to..
Develop skill of saying “thank you” (in different ways) to peers.
Develop skill of reading third grade material at 150 words correct per minute.
Develop ability of a pre-schooler to stay in morning circle for 10 min without screaming

22. Six rules to scheduling reinforcement?

23. “Rules to scheduling reinforcement when planning instruction (from Snell & Brown, 2011)”
1. During acquisition stage of learning more instances of behavior should be encouraged by the continuous provision of small amounts of contingent reiforcement (e.g., a smile and task-specific praise, fulfilling a request, “high five”, or “Yes!”) instead of large amounts of reinforcement given less often.

24. Rule #2
2. After a higher rate or more accurate behavior has been established, reinforcers should be faded slowly from a continuous to a fixed schedule, which requires more behavior for each reinforcement. This will strengthen the behavior as the student learns to tolerate periods of nonreinforcement instead of abruptly giving up & not responding when reinforcment is not forthcoming

25. Rule #3
Because students may learn to predict when reinforcement will occur, uneven patterns may result (e.g., rewarded for cleaning every Friday…won’t clean until Friday…vs random spot checks), so switch to a variable schedule
based on average of every fifth time, but may occur after 2nd behavior or 10th behavior…student doesn’t know so continues working hard!

26. Rule #4
Reinforcers must be assessed periodically so that they continue to be reinforcing to the student.
Wise to offer students the opportunity to choose their reinforcer from a group of preferred activities/items.

27. Rule #5
Reinforcers must be suited to student’s chronological age, the activity, and the learning situation.
Aim for replacing less appropriate reinforcers with ones that have more availability in the natural environments encountered by the student.

28. Rule #6
The more immediately a reinforcer is presented following the peformance of the behavior, the greater will be its effect.

29. Article Review Presentations
Group 1- Sara, Janet, Jessica, & Paula
Group 2- Gary, Daniel, & Scott

30. Discrete Trial Training & Pivotal Response Training

31. Discrete Trial Training
Cue
(opportunity to respond)
Response/
Behavior
Consequence
Pause
DTT
T provides instructional cue (prompting may be needed)
Student Responds
Teacher praises and give child a positive reinforcer
There is a pause EX
Student indicates interest in chips
Teacher says “Give me a car”
Student gives car to teacher
Teacher praises student and gives student a chip
Student eats chip and teacher waits a few seconds before next cue

32. Discrete Trial Training (DTT)
Strategy based on ABA principles
Breaking skills down into smaller components and teaching those smaller sub-skills individually
Mass Trials and Repeated Practice
Use of prompting when necessary
Leaf, R., & McEachin, J. (1999). A Work In Progress. New York, New York: DRL Books
Green, G., Luce, S., & Maurice, C. (1996). Behavioral Intervention for Young Children with Autism: A Manual for
Parents and Professionals. Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed.
Smith, T. (2001). Discrete Trial Training in the Treatment of Autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental
Disabilities, 16(2),

33. “Discrete Trial” Initial Instruction (“Touch your nose”)
A prompt or cue given by the teacher to help the child respond correctly (Teacher points to child’s nose)
A response given by the child (Child touches nose)
An appropriate consequence (“Nice job touching your nose” + sticker)
Pause between consecutive trials (1-5 seconds before next trial)

34. Chained response skills vs discrete response skills
Chained: multi-step behaviors
E.g. sweeping the floor, playing UNO, ordering food
Discrete: stand alone (e.g., naming people, matching numbers to quantities, reading words)
It is sometimes hard to distinguish the difference, depending on the learner

35. Decide whether these objectives include chained or discrete behaviors
Following the use of the toilet, Marc will wash his hands by completing 8 of 10 task steps independently
When asked to circle a word (e.g., nap, mop, map) that matches a picture on a worksheet, Marc will correctly circle the word 75% of the worksheet for two probes in a row
When given a slant board to hold his papers and a template to limit the range of writing, Marc will print all of the letters of the alphabet from a model 100% of the time on two probes in a row.
During lunch time at school, Marc will complete 10 of the 12 steps independently: get in line, go to cafeteria….etc….and return to the classroom.

36. Basic DT Strategies Correct Response DT Intro Procedures
What to do when the student gets it right
DT Intro Procedures
Introducing new items, concepts in a sequential manner
Error Correction
What to do when the student makes an error
Reinforced Learning Trials
What to do when the student makes several errors
Delivery of Reinforcement
Effective delivery of reinforcement

37. Choose reinforcers you can easily control
Toys can be difficult because of the “tug of war”
Food- small pieces
Videos/dvd’s 2 min work= 30 sec video
List: food/drinks, video/audio tapes, short reinforcers that can be supported at a table (e.g., bubbles, light up spinning top, duster to tickle child), activities that include movement (bouncing on a ball, pushing on a swing, rocking, etc.)
Make sure student does not have unlimited access to them (out of reach or in a bin)

38. Pairing learning environment/ people with reinforcers
Want student to think of place they work and people they work with as a “good place”…where I get good things.
How to pair reinforcement
Associate self with reinforcer
Reinforcers readily available…go to child…give reinforcer without demand
If child does not take it, lay it next to child and leave table
Work towards goal of having child take reinforcer in presence
Pair your voice with item
When deliver reinforcer…say “chip…chip..here Jimmy, a chip”

39. Pairing reinforcers
3. Place reinforcer on work table…short distance away from child and see if child will approach you. -once he begins approach, deliver reinforcer without demanding anything 4. Move items further from child -want child to get up from anywhere and go to teacher 5. Teacher to begin contact/interact with child -narrating what’s on TV, tickle child, sing songs If problems with pairing reinforcers…. Reassess the reinforcers you are using

40. Easing in demands Low in beginning
Begin work when child happily approaches work area
Child sitting nicely for at least a few minutes
Tolerates your voice and touches to arm and back
1. Start by asking the child to learn to sign for reinforcer (far item)
2. Then…imitating using toys, matching identical objects, simple puzzles

41. DT Scenario: Correct Response
Reinforce Student
In general…
3 in a row correct?
Then move on to next step following program plan.
Demonstration:
Correct Response

42. Discrete Trial Training
Cue
(opportunity to respond)
Response/
Behavior
Consequence
Pause
DTT
T provides instructional cue (prompting may be needed)
Student Responds
Teacher praises and give child a positive reinforcer
There is a pause
Correct Responses- give student reinforcer
In general: 3 in a row correct then move to next step/ skill in program

43. Data Collection
Skill #1:
Ring Bell +

44. Data Collection Skill #1: Ring Bell + Notes: 3 in a row move on
Ring Bell w/ Distractor (D)

45. Data Collection Example of Intro Procedures
Date
Task
Data
Comments
4/7/13
Bell +
X or “1st item”
Bell w/d
Car
Y or “2nd item”
Car w/d
Presented in random rotation
Day 1
4/12/13
Day 2
Block
Z or “3rd item”
Block w/d
Car, Bell R1 R2 R1

47. Rules/ Suggestions about the Distractor
It is not overly distracting for the child
It is never the correct response
In the same classification (object or picture)
Not an item you are currently teaching
Arick et al., 2004

48. DT Scenario: Error Correction If the student makes an error…
Repeat trial with highly preferred item available
Reinforce with social praise or less preferred item
Prompt with just enough assistance to get a correct response
Repeat cue
Stop and restart trial
Demonstration: Error Correction

49. General Reinforcement Procedure
For a correct response
1:1 tangible reward or token (Big R+ for this student and 1:1 social praise.
For a prompted response
1:1 Social praise and (only if needed with this student) 1:1 little reward (not big R+)
Arick et al., 2004

50. Data Collection
+ = correct response Ø = incorrect/no response and then corrected with a prompt 0 = incorrect/no response and not correct even with a prompt

51. Data Collection- Correct Responses
Skill #1:
Ring Bell +
Notes: 3 in a row move on
Skill #2:
Ring Bell w/ Distractor (D)

52. Data Collection Error Correction
Date
Task
Data
Comments
4/7/13
Bell +
+ = correct response O = incorrect/no response and then corrected with a prompt O = incorrect/no response and not correct even with a prompt

53. Data Collection- Incorrect Trial
Skill #1:
Ring Bell +
Notes: 3 in a row move on
Skill #2:
Ring Bell w/ Distractor (D)
Student Makes Error

54. Data Collection- Error Correction
Skill #1:
Ring Bell +
Notes: 3 in a row move on
Skill #2:
Ring Bell w/ Distractor (D) Ø
Student Makes Error. Always provide a correction procedure (/) after an error (0)

55. Next Trial After Prompted Trial
Skill #1:
Ring Bell +
Notes: 3 in a row move on
Skill #2:
Ring Bell w/ Distractor (D) Ø
After prompted trial, keep position of items the same

56. Reinforced Learning Trial (RLT) Procedure
After 3 errors in a row:
Note change in prompt level on data sheet
Reinforce with tangible and verbal reward
Slowly fade back amount of assistance needed after student gets 3/3 correct at current step

57. Reinforced Learning Trials (RLT) Data Collection
Date
Task
Data
Comments
4/7/13
Ring Bell w/D +
3 error corrections- go to Reinforced Learning Trial (RLT)
RLT- PP
(Partial Physical Prompt)
RLT – TP
(Touch Prompt )
No Prompt- NP
(No Prompt)
No Prompt (NP)
Touch Prompt (TP)
Partial Physical Prompt (PP)
Full Physical Prompt (FP)
No prompt
Touching lightly to initiate or change direction of the response
Student does some part of the response independently. Not a full physical but more than a touch.
Student requires physical prompting throughout the response

58. Recommendations for DT Sessions
Reinforce student sitting in chair
Reinforce student’s hands in lap
Present cue in timely manner
Reinforce correct program response
Reinforce frequently for sitting
Reinforce frequently for hands in lap
Arick et al., 2010

59. Teaching Sitting in a Chair
Find motivating reinforcers
Reinforcers in view, ready to deliver
Arrange environment for success
Reinforce for a few seconds of side by side sitting
Do not allow student to have access to the reinforcer unless they are sitting in the chair.
Arick et al., 2010

60. Ideas for decreasing crying & tantrum behavior
Find extremely motivating reinforcers
Talk about the reinforcers
End sessions with correct response sequence and good behavior
Withdraw & ignore tantrum behavior
Present a simple trial when tantrum stops
Redirect with a series of simple trials from an easier program
Conduct an FBA
Arick et al., 2010

61. Teaching Sharing & Waiting
Allow time for student to enjoy the reinforcer
Use “my turn” and hold out your hand
May need physical prompt first
Place reinforcer in plain view, start right away, reinforce for correct response
A timer can help with sharing issues
Use token reinforcement system to teach delayed gratification
Arick et al., 2010

62. Practice Using DTT, Teach your partner to: Teacher:
1. Imitate an action using an item (e.g. ringing a bell, writing a letter) [X]
2. Identify “Da Kine” [Y](teacher chooses what “Da Kine” means)
Teacher:
Present “X” only until 3 consecutive responses correct.
Present “X” with a “Distractor” until 3 consecutive responses correct.
Present “Y” only until 3 consecutive correct responses
Present “Y” with a Distractor until 3 consecutive correct responses
Present X & Y (randomly present until 3 consecutive correct for each X & Y)

63. Practice
Student
Do not get every trial correct,
but do get 3 correct eventually so that “Teacher” can move on to presenting the other skills.
Take turns choosing a different action and a different meaning for “Da Kine”

64. Pivotal Response Training
Behavioral intervention that teaches:
expressive language
spontaneous language
play and social skills
Follows ABA format:
Cue, Response, Consequence, Pause

65. Pivotal Response Training
Increases generalization of language concepts and play skills.
Creates teachable moments in context
Engages student using highly motivating toys and materials that are carefully selected

66. Advantages of Using PRT
Students less likely to become “stimulus or cue” dependent
Increases motivation / decreases frustration
Increases generalization and maintenance of intervention gains
Teachable moments throughout school and home
Naturalistic approach
Student chooses activity
Activity IS the reinforcer
Can be used by parents/teachers/peers/sib-lings
Interaction strategy that can be implemented immediately

67. Example of PRT Session (expressive language lesson)
Cue
Response
Consequence
Pause
Child reaches for toy car.
Teacher holds car and says “car.”
Student says “ca”
Teacher gives child car and lets him push the car down the track as a reward for requesting
Child continues playing with, while the teacher observes and prepares for the next cue.

68. Example of PRT Session (play and social interaction lesson)
Cue
Response
Consequence
Pause
Child reaches for car on the track, child wants to spin wheels. Teacher holds car and says “Do this.”
Child imitates the teacher’s action and pushes car.
Teacher lets child hold the car and spin the wheels as a reward for responding.
Child continues to play with car, while teacher observes and prepares for next cue.

69. Cue Control is shared Child chooses toy or activity Turn-taking
Cue is Clear and Related to the chosen activity
Cue clear and uninterrupted
Child must attend to the cue
Maintenance skills are interspersed
Tasks that student IS capable of doing with success
50% of cues elicited are maintenance skills

70. Response Reponses are verbal or non-verbal
Expressive language (“say” something)
Physical action (do something)
Response is related to the activity
Must have something to do with the chosen activity

71. Consequence Reinforce attempts Reinforcement is direct
Reinforcement is clear
Reinforcement is immediate
Child clearly receives reinforcement
Reinforcement only follows an appropriate response
Reinforce attempts
Any response judged appropriate within the context of the activity should be reinforced
Reinforcement is direct
Reinforcer is a natural consequence to the behavior being rewarded

72. Pause Child is observed and evaluated Observe:
Level of motivation with toy or activity
Behavior- engaged, continued interests
Level of language and play skills displayed
Targeting appropriate language
Targeting appropriate play
What’s the next step?
Model next step/skill for language and play
- Give student time to enjoy the R+

73. Preparing for your PRT Session
Schedule PRT time
Identify at least one minute rotation per day
Train staff to do PRT throughout the day
Create an appropriate space
Make an area using partitions/shelves
Sit so you are face-to-face with student, in chairs with table (or on floor if needed)

74. Preparing for your PRT Session
Pre-Plan Activities
Provide wide selection of motivating activities and toys
Place toys out of reach
Large tub/bin with lid
Work with other specialists to consider all needs of student
Consider sensory-based activities/items to teach student to request appropriately to meet their needs

75. Work on Behavior Throughout the Session
If Grabbing Objects/toys
Avoid by teaching “hands down” and reinforce teaching “my turn” and block/withold to encourage verbal language
If Throwing Objects/toys
Avoid by teaching “do this” and show the student what TO DO; teach them to say “no ______” for rejecting an object (have other reinforcing items to choose from)
If Crying/Screaming
Avoid by having highly reinforcing items; ignoring behavior if possible; waiting till quite then reinforce; ending session on a positive (maybe start with shorter session)
Arick et al., 2010

76. Work on Behavior throughout the session
If aggressive (e.g., pinching, hitting)
Teach “hands down” and reinforce; ignore behavior; provide frequent reinforcement for appropriate behaviors (“hands down”, “my turn”)
Lack of appropriate responding
Secure student’s attention before presenting cue; present a clear cue; have highly motivating items and market the items!
Arick et al., 2010

77. Practice….take turns playing the role of student and teacher
Teacher: Your goal is to teach:
Turn taking: My turn…Your turn.
Student to say the preferred item they are playing with in order to get it back.