1. Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood
Children 12
Cognitive Development
in Middle and Late Childhood 1

2. Concrete Operational Thought
What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood?
Concrete Operational Thought
Concrete operational stage; ages 7-11
Reversible mental actions applied to real, concrete objects
Focus on several characteristics at once
Seriation: ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension
Transitivity: the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions 2

3. Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought
A family tree of 4 generations; a preoperational child has trouble classifying the members 3

4. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood?
Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
His conclusions have been challenged:
Cognitive abilities can emerge earlier/later
Stages not unitary structures of thought
Some can be trained to reason at higher stage
Culture and education exert stronger influence
Neo-Piagetians: he got some things right 4

5. Applications to Education
What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood?
Applications to Education
Teach children:
Take constructivist approach
Facilitate rather than direct learning
Consider child’s knowledge and level of thinking
Use ongoing assessment
Promote student’s intellectual health
Turn classroom into setting of exploration and discovery 5

6. Applications to Education
What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood?
Applications to Education
Applying Vygotsky’s ideas
Encourage child to internalize and regulate self-talk
Provide opportunities to learn in real-world settings
Kamehameha Elementary Education Program (KEEP)
Small group activities, ZPD emphasis, question-and-answer format
Outcomes are impressive 6

7. Memory Dramatic improvement in middle/late childhood
What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?
Memory
Dramatic improvement in middle/late childhood
Knowledge and expertise
Expert: extensive knowledge in specific area
Strategies (aka: control processes)
Deliberate mental actions to learn and retain information 7

8. Thinking Critical thinking Creative thinking
What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?
Thinking
Critical thinking
Thinking reflectively and productively
Evaluate evidence, develop deep understanding
Successful grades is not indicator of critical thinker
Creative thinking
Think in novel and unusual ways
Produce unique solutions
Intelligence and creativity not the same 8

9. Thinking Creative thinking and intelligence Research:
What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?
Thinking
Creative thinking and intelligence
Convergent thinking – intelligence reflected on conventional tests; produce one correct answer
Divergent thinking – creativity; produce many answers for one question
Research:
No Child Left Behind harms creative thinking; teaching to content of standardized tests 9

10. Caring for Children Strategies to increase creative thinking
What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?
Caring for Children
Strategies to increase creative thinking
Encourage brainstorming
Provide stimulating environments
Don’t overcontrol, build child’s confidence
Encourage internal motivation
Guide child to be persistent, delay gratification
Encourage taking intellectual risks
Introduce children to creative people 10

11. Metacognition Cognition about cognition Most focus on metamemory
What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?
Metacognition
Cognition about cognition
Most focus on metamemory
Children ages 5 to 6
Familiar, related items easier to remember
Gist of a story is easier to remember
Focus on knowledge about strategies
Effective planning aids problem solving
Application of effective strategies is key 11

12. Intelligence and Its Assessment
How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?
Intelligence and Its Assessment
Intelligence
Problem-solving skills and ability to learn from everyday experiences that allow adaptation
Individual differences exist
Verbal ability and problem-solving skills
Can only be measured indirectly
Intelligence tests
Binet tests (later Stanford-Binet Tests) 12

13. Intelligence and Its Assessment
How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?
Intelligence and Its Assessment
Mental age (MA): measure of an individual’s level of mental development
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
Normal distribution MA CA
X 100 IQ 13

14. Stanford-Binet IQ Scores
The Normal Curve and
Stanford-Binet IQ Scores 14

15. How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?
Types of Intelligence
Gardner’s eight types of intelligence (a.k.a. frames of mind)
Verbal
Mathematical
Spatial
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Everyone has all to varying degrees
Musical
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalist 15

16. Evaluating Multiple Intelligences
How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?
Evaluating Multiple Intelligences
Controversial views
Stimulated educators to think more about children’s competencies
Motivated new educational program development and assessment
Some critics say views go too far
Controversy exists: multiple vs. general
Culture
Conceptual differences exist; cultural values influence what is learned, rewarded 16

17. Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores
How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?
Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores
Influence of genetics
Comparison of identical and fraternal twins
Identical twins: reared together and apart
Effects of environmental change
Heritability: variance due to genetics
Controversial; not without flaws
Environment affected by many factors
Parenting, education, ongoing change in culture/society, personal experiences 17

18. Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores
How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?
Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores
Environmental influences
Flynn Effect: IQ scores increasing rapidly
Emphasis on prevention, not remedial
Early interventions
High-quality child care
More focus on poor children
Continue programs into adolescence
Gaps between U.S. racial/ethnic groups
Gap narrows in college 18

19. Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores
How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?
Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores
Using Intelligence Tests
Effectiveness depends on user’s skills
Avoid stereotyping and expectations
IQ is not sole indicator of competence
Use caution in interpreting overall IQ scores
Extremes of intelligence
Mental retardation (organic, cultural-familial)
Giftedness (IQ of 130 or more) 19

20. Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores
How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?
Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores
Characteristics of giftedness
Three criteria
Precocity
Marching to their own drummer
A passion to master
Product of both heredity and environment
Currently, controversy over definitions
Negative consequences for being ‘gifted’ 20

21. Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness
What Changes in Language Development Occur in Childhood?
Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness
Children gain new skills in school
Alphabetic principle: sounds of language
Begin to categorize vocabulary; mastery increases with age
Learn to use language in complex manner, producing connected discourse
Metalinguistic awareness
Knowledge about language
Pragmatics: culturally appropriate uses 21

22. Whole-language approach
What Changes in Language Development Occur in Childhood?
Reading
Whole-language approach
Instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning; reading materials should be whole and meaningful
Phonetics
approach
Stresses phonetics and basic rules for translating symbols into sounds; early reading instruction should involve simplified materials 22

23. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic: external rewards, punishments
Intrinsic: internal desires, perceptions
Emphasizes self-determination
Motivation can be enhanced
Create engaging environments
Encourage self-responsibility
External and intrinsic can operate together 23

24. What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?
Self- Efficacy
Belief that one can master situation and produce favorable outcomes
Common with mastery motivation and intrinsic motivation
Linked to effort and persistency
Critical factor in achievement
Self-efficacy influences selection, choices 24

25. Goal setting, Planning, and Self-regulation
What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?
Goal setting, Planning, and Self-regulation
Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are:
Specific
Proximal
Challenging
Long-term and short-term are needed
It is important to:
Monitor progress
Evaluate outcomes 25