2. Sociology: Perspective, Theory, and Method
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO 1.1 Explain how the sociological perspective helps us understand that society shapes our individual lives.
LO 1.2 State several reasons that a global perspective is important in today’s world.
LO 1.3 Identify the advantages of sociological thinking for developing public policy, for encouraging personal growth, and for advancing in a career.
LO 1.4 Link the origins of sociology to historical social changes.
LO 1.5 Summarize sociology’s major theoretical approaches.

3. Sociology: Perspective, Theory, and Method
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO 1.6 Describe sociology’s three research orientations.
LO 1.7 Identify the importance of gender in sociological research.
LO 1.8 Discuss the importance of ethics to sociological research.
LO 1.9 Explain why a researcher might choose each of sociology’s research methods.
LO 1.10 Recall the ten important steps in carrying out sociological research.

4. The Sociological Perspective
Sociologists look for general patterns in the behavior of particular individuals.
Society shapes what people think and do in patterned ways in everyday life.
Marginality, crisis, and rapid change enhance the ability to see sociologically.
Seeing the general in the particular
Sociologists identify general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals.
Seeing the strange in the familiar
Understanding that society shapes our lives in patterned
Seeing society in our everyday lives
In class activity:
Brainstorm about three “familiar” practices in the United States.
Now find something “strange” about each of the practices.
Discuss why they seem strange, now that you are using the sociological perspective.
LO 1.1 Explain how the sociological perspective helps us understand that society shapes our individual lives.

5. The Power of Society Do we simply “pick” our marriage partners?
In 77 percent of all married couples in the United States, both partners are within five years of the age of each other; in 78 percent of love and marriage as very personal matters, it is clear that society guides the process of selecting a spouse.

6. Is childbearing simply a matter of personal choice
Is childbearing simply a matter of personal choice? A look around the world shows that it is not.
In general, women living in poor countries have many more children than women in rich nations.
Can you point to some of the reasons for this global disparity?
In simple terms, such differences mean that if you had been born into another society (whether you are female or male), your life might be quite different what it is now.
Sources: Data from Population Reference Bureau (2012).

7. The Sociological Perspective: Seeing Society in Our Everyday Life
Durkheim
Suicide study findings and analysis still hold true in current research studies.
Differences between those who commit suicide and those who do not is social integration.

8. Seeing Sociologically: Marginality and Crisis
Greater marginality is related to better ability to use the sociological perspective.
Crisis or rapid change encourages use of sociological perspective (Mills).
Two situations help people see clearly how society shapes individual lives: living on the margins of society and living through a social crisis.
People with the greatest privileges tend to see individuals as responsible for their own lives.
Those at the margins of society, by contrast, are quick to see how race, class, and gender can create disadvantages.

9. Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life
Sociological imagination (Mills)
Society, not people, is main cause of poverty and other social problems.
Sociological imagination turns personal problems into public issues to mitigate change.

10. The Importance of a Global Perspective: What Is…?
Study of the larger world and our society’s place in it
Global perspective importance
Sociology shows that our place in society profoundly affects our life experiences.
LO 1.2 State several reasons that a global perspective is important in today’s world.

11. The Importance of a Global Perspective: Understanding Categories
Broad categories of level of economic development
High-income countries
Middle-income countries
Low-income countries
High-income countries: Nations with the highest overall standards of living
Middle-income countries: Nations with a standard of living about average for the world as a whole.
Low-income countries: Nations with a low standard of living in which most people are poor.

12. The Importance of a Global Perspective
Why is it important?
Where we live shapes the lives we lead.
Societies are increasingly interconnected through technology, economics, and immigration.
Many social problems that we face in the United States are more serious elsewhere.
Thinking globally is a good way to learn more about ourselves.
To understand ourselves and appreciate how others live, we must understand something about how countries differ, which is one good reason to pay attention to the global maps found throughout this text.
About 1.3 million immigrants enter the United States each year, bringing their skills and talents, along with their fashions and foods, greatly increasing the racial and cultural diversity of this country (Hoefer, Rytina, & Baker, 2012; U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2012).
In the last several decades, the power and wealth of the United States have been challenged by what some analysts have called “the rise of the rest”.

13. Applying the Sociological Perspective: Sociology and Public Policy
Sociologists help shape public policy.
Laws and regulations guide life and work in communities.
Examples: Racial desegregation, school busing, divorce laws
Class activity
Think of a public policy topic in our society that is currently under review and/or discussion.
LO 1.3 Identify the advantages of sociological thinking for developing public policy, for encouraging personal growth, and for advancing in a career.

14. Applying the Sociological Perspective: Sociology and Personal Growth
Sociology shapes personal development.
Aids in assessment of the truth of “common sense”
Helps in evaluation of the opportunities and constraints of everyday lives
Empowers people to be active participants in society
Helps people live in a diverse world

15. Careers: The “Sociology Advantage”
A sociology background
Excellent preparation for working world
Important preparation careers in teaching and research in sociology and a wide range of other professional positions
Required preparation for clinical sociologists
Just about every job in today’s economy involves working with people.
For this reason, studying sociology is good preparation for your future career.
In what ways does having “people skills” help police officers perform their jobs?

16. Social Change and Development of Sociology
In 18th and 19th Century Europe
Rise of factory-based, industrial economy
Explosive growth of cities
New ideas about democracy, political rights, and individualism
LO 1.4 Link the origins of sociology to historical social changes.

17. Science and Sociology Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
Was French social thinker who coined the term “sociology” in 1838
Introduced approach called positivism
Saw sociology as product of three historical stages
Stages
Theological Stage (the Church in the Middle Ages)
Metaphysical Stage (the Enlightenment and the ideas of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau)
Scientific Stage (Modern physics, chemistry, sociology)
Positivism
Scientific approach to knowledge based on positive facts as opposed to mere speculation.
Stages
Theological
Metaphysical
Scientific

18. Sociological Theory: What Is…?
Statement of how and why specific facts are related
Theoretical approach
Basic image of society that guides thinking and research
Two basic questions in building theory
What issues should we study?
How should we connect the facts?
LO 1.5 Summarize sociology’s major theoretical approaches.

19. This map shows which states have high, average, and low suicide rates.
Look for patterns. By and large, high suicide rates occur where people live far apart from one another.
More densely populated states have low suicide rates.
Do these data support or contradict Durkheim’s theory of suicide? Why?

20. The Structural-Functional Approach
Macro-level orientation
Societal parts integrated to promote solidarity and stability
The basics
Social structure
Social function
Manifest functions
Latent functions
Key elements
Comte, Durkheim, Spencer
Theorists
Approach sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.
Macro-level orientation is concerned with broad patterns that shape society as a whole.
Society is viewed as a complex system; parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.
Social structure: Any relatively stable patterns of social behavior found in social institutions
Social function: Consequences for the operation of society as a whole
Manifest functions: Recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern
Latent functions: Unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern

21. Social-Conflict Approach: What Is…?
Sees society as arena of inequality that generates conflict and change
Gender-conflict theory
Focuses on inequality and conflict between women and men
Race-conflict theory
Focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories

22. Social-Conflict Approach
Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to social inequality.
Dominant group versus disadvantaged group relations vary.
The basics
Social structure promotes the operation of society as a whole rejected.
Society structured in ways to benefit a few at the expense of the majority.
Key elements
Karl Marx and W.E.B Du Bois
Theorists
Level of analysis
Macro-oriented
Karl Marx
Focus on importance of social class in inequality and social conflict
W.E.B. Du Bois
Focus on race as the major problem facing the U.S. in the 20th century

23. Social-Conflict Approach
Evaluation
Social-conflict approach used to understand society and to bring about societal change that would reduce inequality
Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly negative view of society

24. Feminism and the Gender-Conflict Approach
The basics
Gender-conflict theory: Focus on inequality and conflict between women and men
Feminism: Advocacy of social equality for women and men linked to gender-conflict theory
Theorists
Harriet Martineau
Jane Addams
We can use the sociological perspective to look at sociology itself. Jane Addams was an early sociologist in the United States who founded Hull House, a Chicago settlement house where she spent many hours helping young people.
Harriet Martineau
Documented evils of slavery, argued for laws to protect factory workers, and fought for changes in education policy
Jane Addams
Dealt with issues involving immigration and the pursuit of peace
All of the most widely recognized pioneers of the discipline were men.
This is because in the nineteenth century, it was all but unheard of for women to be college professors, and few women took a central role in public life.
LO 1.7 Identify the importance of gender in sociological research.

25. The Race-Conflict Approach
Focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories
Suggests racial conflict still issue in the U.S.
The basics
Ida Wells Barnett
W.E.B. Du Bois
Theorists
Ida Wells Barnett
Born to slave parents but rose to become a teacher and then a journalist and newspaper publisher
Campaigned for racial equality throughout her life
W.E.B. Du Bois
Founded the Atlanta Sociological Laboratory
Believed that sociologists should not simply learn about society's problems but also try to solve them

26. Social-Conflict Theories
Evaluation
Large following gained in recent decades
Focuses on inequality, but largely ignores how shared values and interdependence unify members of a society
Cannot claim scientific objectivity

27. Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm
Focuses on social interactions in specific situations
Views society as the product of everyday interactions of individuals
The basics
Society is shared, dynamic constructed reality developed through interaction.
Key elements
Weber
Mead
Theorists
The basics
Presents a micro-level orientation
Offers a close-up focus on social interactions in specific situations
Views society as the product of everyday interactions of individuals
Key elements
Society is a shared reality that people construct as they interact with one another.
Society is a complex, ever-changing mosaic of subjective meanings.

28. Sports: Playing the Theory Game
Structural-functional: Recreation and help social relationship building.
Social-conflict: Social inequality exists in sports.
Gender-conflict: Gender equality is not evident, especially in earnings and prestige.
Race-conflict: Racial conflict still exists.
Symbolic-interaction: Understanding varies by each player.
“Stacking” in Professional Baseball: Does race play a part in professional sports?
Looking at the various positions in professional baseball, we see that white players are more likely to play the central positions in the infield, while people of color are more likely to play in the outfield.
What do you make of this pattern?
Source: Lapchick (2011).
“Stacking” in Professional Baseball: Does race play a part in professional sports?

29. Applying Theory

30. Three Ways to do Sociology
All sociologists want to learn about the social world.
Three ways to do sociological research
Positivist sociology
Interpretive sociology
Critical sociology
Positivist sociology: Study of society based on scientific observation of social behavior
Empirical evidence: Information we can verify with our senses
Sciences: Logical system that develops knowledge from direct, systematic observation
See page 23 for research challenges often accepted as “common sense”.
LO 1.6 Describe sociology’s three research orientations.

31. Positivist Sociology: What Is…?
Study of society based on scientific observation of social behavior
Empirical evidence
Information we can verify with our senses
Science
Logical system that develops knowledge from direct, systematic observation

32. Concepts and Variables: What Is…?
Mental construct; represents some part of the world in a simplified form
Variable
Concept that changes from case to case

33. Variable operationalization
Measurement: What Is…?
Measurement
Procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case
Variable operationalization
Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning variable value

34. Descriptive statistics Most commonly used descriptive statistics
Statistics: What Is…?
Descriptive statistics
State what is “average” for a large population
Most commonly used descriptive statistics
Mean
Median
Mode
The most commonly used descriptive statistics are the mean (the arithmetic average of all measures, which you calculate by adding all the values and dividing by the number of cases), the median (the score at the halfway point in a listing of numbers from lowest to highest), and the mode (the score that occurs most often).

35. Reliability and Validity: What Is…?
Consistency in measurement
Process must yield the same results when repeated
Validity
Measuring exactly what you intend to measure

36. Correlation and Cause Correlation Cause and effect
Relationship in which two (or more) variables change together
Cause and effect
Relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Spurious correlation

37. The Ideal of Objectivity
Personal neutrality
Value-relevant research
Topics the researcher cares about
Value-free research
Dedication to finding truth as it is, rather than as we think it should be
One principle of scientific research is that sociologists and other investigators should try to be objective in their work, so that their personal values and beliefs do not distort their findings.
Investigators should try to be objective in work.

38. Interpretive Sociology: What Is…?
Study of society that focuses on discovering the meanings people attach to their social world
Humans engage in meaningful action.

39. Scientific Versus Interpretive Sociology
Scientific sociology focuses on action.
Scientific sociology sees an objective reality.
Scientific sociology favors quantitative data.
Interpretive sociology focuses on meaning.
Interpretive sociology sees reality.
Interpretive sociology favors qualitative data.
Interpretive sociology differs from scientific or empirical sociology in three ways.
Scientific orientation is well-suited for research in a laboratory
Interpretive orientation is better suited in a natural setting
Investigators interact with people

40. Weber’s Concept of Verstehen
German word for “understanding”
Interpretive sociologist’s role
Observe what people do
Share in their world of meaning
Appreciate why they act as they do

41. Critical Sociology: What Is…?
Focuses on the need for social change
Asks moral and political questions
Rejects Weber’s goal of value-free sociology
Emphasizes sociologists social activism in pursuit of greater social equality

42. Sociology as Politics Scientific sociologists Critical sociologists
Object to taking sides in this way
Claims critical sociology
Critical sociologists
All research is political in that it either calls for change or does not

43. Summing Up

44. Research Orientation and Theory
Gender can affect sociological research in five ways
Androcentricity, over-generalizing, gender blindness, double standards, and interference
If you ask only male subjects about their attitudes or actions, you may be able to support conclusions about “men” but not more generally about “people.”
What would a researcher have to do to ensure that research data support conclusions about all of society?
Gender
Personal traits and social positions members of a society attach to being female or male
See page 28 for additional details.
LO 1.7 Identify the importance of gender in sociological research.

45. Research Ethics American Sociological Association
Sociologists must be aware that research can harm as well as help subjects and communities.
American Sociological Association
Established formal guidelines for conducting research
Guidelines
Skillful and fair-minded
Disclosure of all research findings
No risk of harm
Privacy protection
Informed consent
Funding source transparency/conflict of interest
IRB
Familiarity with cultural norms
LO 1.8 Discuss the importance of ethics to sociological research.

46. Research Methods: What Is…?
Systematic plan for doing research
Four methods of sociological investigation
Experiments
Surveys
Participant observation
Existing sources
LO 1.9 Explain why a researcher might choose each of sociology’s research methods.

47. Research Methods: What Is…?
Experiment
Research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions
Hypothesis
Statement of a possible relationship between two (or more) variables

48. Steps of the Experiment
State which variable is the independent variable and which is the dependent variable
Measure the initial value of the dependent variable
Expose the dependent variable to the independent variable (the “cause” or “treatment”)
Measure the dependent variable again to see what change, if any, took place.
If the expected change took place, the experiment supports the hypothesis; if not, the hypothesis must be modified.
State which variable is the independent variable (the “cause” of the change) and which is the dependent variable (the “effect,” the thing that is changed)
An experimenter gathers the evidence needed to reject or not to reject the hypothesis in four steps
Stanford County Prison system experiment

49. Asking Questions: Survey Research
Subjects respond to series of statements or question on questionnaire or interview
Population
Any set of people or events from which the sample is selected and to which the study results will generalize.
Sample
Group of people or events drawn from a population.
Focus groups are a type of survey in which a small number of people representing a target population are asked for their opinions about some issue or product.
Studying African American Elite

50. In the Field: Participant Observation
Systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities.
Cultural anthropologists
Using “fieldwork” to study societies
Making most participant observation exploratory and descriptive
At its best, participant observation makes you a star in your own reality show; but living in what may be a strange setting far from home for months at a time is always challenging.
Here, Ewoodzie observes students from a local college helping to provide a meal to homeless people
Studying homeless in Jackson, Mississippi
Participant observation is a method of sociological research that allows a researcher to investigate people as they go about their everyday lives in some “natural” setting.

51. Using Available Data: Existing Sources
U.S. Census Bureau
United Nations
World Bank
Sociologists make use of existing sources of data.
Data form incompatibility
Data accuracy
Weakness
Sociologists make use of existing sources of data collected by others.

52. Every ten years, the Census Bureau conducts a census of all U. S
Every ten years, the Census Bureau conducts a census of all U.S. households, mailing forms to each address.
About 75 percent of U.S. households returned their form, as directed by law.
But participation rates were higher in some places than in others. Looking at the map, what patterns do you see?
What might explain lower return rates in Southwest Texas along the Mexican border and in New Mexico?
What might explain the higher return rates in urban areas close to both coasts and in the Midwest?
Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2010).

53. Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Research
Might the research cause harm?
What will you need to carry out research?
What, exactly, are your questions?
What have others already learned?
What is your topic?
LO 1.10 Recall the ten important steps in carrying out sociological research.

54. Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Research
How can you share what you have learned?
What are your conclusions?
What do the data tell you?
How will you record the data?
What method will you use?