1. Rome

2. The Pre-Roman World

3. Early Influences From the Greeks Agriculture Architecture Alphabet
Literature
From the Etruscans
Army
Clothing
Streets
Temples
Public Buildings

4. Geography and Rome
Rome is located in the center of the Italian peninsula. This location helped the Romans expand in Italy and beyond.
The Apennine Mountains run down the center of Italy but are not too rugged.
Fertile plains supported a growing population.
Ancestors of the Romans settled along the Tiber River. These villages eventually grew into Rome.
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5. How was Greco-Roman civilization formed?
The Romans borrowed heavily from Greek culture after they conquered Greece.
At the same time, Roman generals carried achievements of Roman civilization to conquered lands.
The blending of Roman, Hellenistic, and Greek traditions produced Greco-Roman civilization.
Trade and travel during the Pax Romana helped spread this new civilization.
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6. The Roman Republic:
In 509 B.C., the Romans drove out the Etruscans and set up a new government, which they called a republic. In a republic, some officials are chosen by the people.
In the early republic, the senate dominated the government. Its members were patricians, or members of the landholding class.
Little by little, the plebeians, or common people, gained some political power. These included the right to elect their own officials, called tribunes. The tribunes could veto, or block, laws that they felt harmed plebeians.
More than 2,000 years later, the framers of the United States Constitution would adapt Roman ideas of government, such as the senate, the veto, and checks on political power.
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7. 3 Important Groups in the Roman Republic:
The Senate
The Assembly of the Centuries
The Assembly of the Tribes
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8. The Roman Senate
The Senate was the most powerful group in the government.
Composed of three hundred men
Controlled public funds
Controlled political appointments
Determined foreign policy
Sometimes acted as a court
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9. The Assembly of the Centuries
Divided its voters into voting units called centuries.
Each century had 100 members
There were 193 centuries in the Assembly
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10. The Council of the Plebs
Made up of citizens grouped into 35 tribes according to where they lived
The group was controlled by the plebeians, or commoners.
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11. Roman Republic Government Officials Legislative Bodies
Praetors—controlled civil law as it applied to citizens and non-citizens
Senate—select group of 300 patricians, serving for life, who advised government officials
Consuls—ran the government and led Roman army into battle
Centuriate assembly—elected officials and passed laws, based on wealth
Tribunes of the plebs—officials given the power to protect the plebians
Council of the plebs—popular assembly for the plebians—eventually could pass laws for all Romans

12. How the Roman
Republic works

13. Patricians and Plebeians
Patricians – aristocrats of the early Roman Republic.
The word patrician comes from the Latin word pater, which means father.
This word was also used to describe the members of the Roman Senate.
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14. Patricians came from wealthy families.
They controlled the government, army, and state religion.
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15. The Life of the Patricians

16. Plebeians – the commoners in the early Roman Republic.
Included freed slaves, peasant farmers, and dependents of patricians.
Denied many rights.
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17. The Life of the Plebeians

18. They were not allowed to marry outside their class.
For many years, plebeians were unable to vote, hold public office, or become priests.
They were not allowed to marry outside their class.
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19. The Government of Ancient Rome
In 451 B.C., government officials wrote down Rome’s laws onto the Twelve Tables which were hung in the forum for all citizens to see
The Twelve Tables were based on the idea that all citizens had a right to the protection of the law 19

20. These laws formed the basis of individual rights of Roman citizens.
The laws dealt with:
Legal procedures
Property ownership
Building codes
Punishment for crimes
And marriage customs
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21. The Law of the Twelve Tables could be modified and expanded in two ways:
New laws were passed when they were needed.
Judges interpreted the old laws to fit new circumstances.
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22. The concept that certain basic legal principles are common to all humans was first developed during Roman times!
An example is the principle that people are innocent until proven guilty.
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23. The Republic Expands (350 B.C.E. to 150 B.C.E)
Romans secured peninsula because of military colonies and generous policy toward the people they conquered
Free from taxation
Govern their own internal affairs
Participate in trade
Take Roman spouses
Must provide military support and alliance
Skilled diplomacy
Loyal, well-trained army
Treated defeated enemies fairly
Gave rights to conquered people

24. The Republic Expands
Carthage was the dominant political power in north Africa (excluding Egypt), the southern part of the Iberian peninsula, and the western region of Sicily.
Meanwhile, Hellenistic empires dominated the eastern Mediterranean, Macedon, Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia. The Hellenes (Greeks) had a thriving network of maritime commerce in the Mediterranean.

25. The Republic Expands
The Carthaginians controlled the north central coast of Africa and the western Mediterranean.
One of their trade networks focused on the mineral wealth of Spain, especially its silver mines. Carthage developed ports and cities in Sicily and Sardinia to protect that route.

26. The Republic Expands
Between 264 and 146 B.C.E., Rome fought Carthage in three conflicts known as the Punic Wars.
Competition for grain in the western Mediterranean (Sicily) (Romans burned Carthage to the ground and forced 50,000 survivors into slavery)
Rome seized Carthaginian possessions in north Africa and Iberia (grain, oil, wine, silver, and gold used to finance imperial expansion)

27. Roman Society: WOMEN FAMILY RELIGION EDUCATION
Women gained greater freedom and influence over the centuries.
Some women ran businesses. Most worked at home, raising families.
The family was the basic unit of Roman society.
Male was head of household and had absolute authority.
EDUCATION
RELIGION
Gods and goddesses resembled those of Greeks and Etruscans.
Religious festivals inspired sense of community.
Romans built many temples for worship.
Both girls and boys learned to read and write.
Education was highly valued.
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28. After the Punic Wars, Rome conquered new territories in Northern Europe & gained great wealth
One of the generals who led Rome’s expansion was a politician named Julius Caesar

29. Problems for the Roman Republic
Rome’s expansion brought wealth, but also created problems:
The addition of new lands & sources of slave labor increased the gap between the rich & poor
Generals who controlled the armies became more powerful than the politicians in the Senate
Struggles for power led to a series of civil wars in Rome

30. The Rise & Fall of Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar took advantage of the chaos in Rome & was named dictator in 46 B.C.
Julius Caesar was one of the greatest statesmen and military leaders that the world has ever known.
His brilliant leadership resulted in many reforms and helped make Rome the center of a region that extended across Europe.

31. Caesar’s Accomplishments
Governed the empire
Improved the calendar system
Tried to reconcile opponents by appointing them to office
Set up colonies (such as Corinth and Carthage) where poor people in Rome could go to improve their way of living
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32. Stopped dishonest government practices
Granted Roman citizenship to many of the conquered people
Planned a way to reorganize city government in Italy
Replaced dishonest governors with honest ones
Gave free gain only to the people who really needed it
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33. Planned the founding of public libraries
Planned construction of a canal across Isthmus of Corinth
Known as a great writer and orator
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34. Julius Caesar was able to accomplish many things, but he also made enemies of some important Roman leaders.
In 44 B.C. Caesar was murdered on the steps of the Senate by a group of Roman aristocrats who feared his power.
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35. This marked the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire ruled by emperors.
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36. End of the Republic & Rise of the Empire
Caesar’s death changed Rome:
People no longer trusted the Senate to rule Rome & the Roman Republic came to an end & the empire began

37. Caesar Augustus
In his will, Julius Caesar named his grandnephew, Octavian (better known as Caesar Augustus) as heir to rule Rome.
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38. However, when Caesar died, there was a scramble to gain control of the government.
The Second Triumvirate was formed in 43 B.C. with Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus.
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Photos courtesy of HBO
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39. Octavian eventually gained sole power, just like Julius Caesar wanted.
When Lepidus retired, Octavian’s only rival was Marc Antony.
He was given the title Augustus, which means “exalted one” in 27 B.C.
From that time on, he was known as Caesar Augustus.
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Photo courtesy of HBO
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41. He told the Roman people that Cleopatra had cast a spell on Antony.
Marc Antony led the Roman army in Egypt, where he met and fell in love with Cleopatra.
Antony and Cleopatra hoped to oust Octavian and rule together, but Octavian used the relationship between Antony and the unpopular Cleopatra to his advantage.
He told the Roman people that Cleopatra had cast a spell on Antony.
Octavian argued that Antony was willing to give away the Roman world to a foreign woman.
The Roman people supported Octavian when he declared war on Antony and Cleopatra.
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42. According to legend, Cleopatra wrapped an asp around her arm.
Octavian’s forces defeated Antony and Cleopatra’s ships in the Battle of Actium on the Mediterranean Sea in 31bc.
Antony and Cleopatra managed to escape the encounter and returned to Egypt, but when Octavian’s army approached, Marc Antony committed suicide.
When Cleopatra learned of Antony’s death, she realized she would soon no longer be Queen.
According to legend, Cleopatra wrapped an asp around her arm.
The asp was a venomous snake that was the symbol for the Egyptian royalty.
The asp’s bite supposedly ended Cleopatra’s life.
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43. Augustus’ reforms:
Created efficient civil service to enforce the laws.
Opened up high-level jobs to men of talent, regardless of race.
Allowed cities and provinces to govern themselves.
Ordered a census, or population count, in order to make the tax system more fair.
Set up a postal service and issued new coins.
Employed the jobless.
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44. From Republic to Empire:
Civil wars
Julius Caesar forces the Roman senate to make him dictator.
Caesar institutes reforms to try to solve Rome’s many problems.
Caesar is killed by enemies who feared that he planned to make himself king of Rome.
More civil wars break out.
Octavian defeats Mark Antony in a struggle for power.
The Roman senate gives Octavian the title of Augustus, or Exalted One, and declares him first citizen.
The 500-year republic comes to an end. The age of the Roman empire begins.
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46. Roman Empire and Roman Peace
Augustus laid the foundation for a stable government that would function well for 200 years. This period was called the Pax Romana.
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47. Pax Romana
Pax Romana – the Roman peace, was the period from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180.
The period of peace was brought about by the ability of the Romans to rule others and maintain their authority through an efficient government both at home and abroad.
The Roman law, military organization, trade, and transportation helped to hold the empire together.
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48. Government was the strongest tie holding the peace.
The Roman army also helped to maintain the Roman peace.
Auxiliaries – troops from the provinces that assisted the Roman army.
They were promised Roman citizenship at the end of their service.
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49. Trade Routes

50. Roman Advances in Literature, History, and Philosophy:
Historians wrote about the rise and fall of Roman power.
Poetry
Writers imitated Greek styles in prose and poetry.
Virgil praised Rome’s heroic
past in the Aeneid.
Poets used verse to satirize,
or make fun of, Roman society.
Philosophy
Roman philosophers borrowed heavily from the Greeks.
Stoics emphasized acceptance of one’s fate and concern for the well-being of others.
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51. Roman Advances in Art and Science:
Technology
Science
Romans left scientific research to the Greeks.
Ptolemy proposed that Earth was the center of the universe.
Galen used experiments to prove a conclusion.
Built roads, bridges, and harbors throughout empire (concrete)
Built many aqueducts
Art
Architecture
Sculptors stressed realism.
Artists depicted life scenes in frescoes and mosaics.
Emphasized grandeur
Improved column and arch
Developed rounded dome
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52. Gifts From Ancient Rome
Rome has made many contributions to our own society.
The capital letters of our alphabet were given their final form by the Romans.
Roman numerals
The names of the months on our calendar also came from Rome.
In many areas conquered by Rome, the Latin language became part of the native language.
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53. Roman Law:
During the Roman empire, these principles of law fostered unity and stability:
An accused person was presumed to be innocent until proven guilty.
The accused was permitted to face the accuser and offer a defense.
Guilt had to be established through evidence.
Judges were expected to interpret the laws and make fair decisions.
Centuries later, these principles would become the basis for legal systems in Europe and the Americas.
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55. Roman Religion
The religion of Rome was centered around trying to please the gods.
Polytheism – the worship of many gods.
Each god was linked to a particular human activity.
Every activity honoring the gods had to be carried out in the appropriate space.
Each god has an assigned space.
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56. The Culture of Ancient Rome
Roman religion was polytheistic & based on the Greek gods (usually only the names changed)

57. The Teachings of Jesus
Some of Jesus’ teachings were rooted in Judaism:
Belief in one God
Ten Commandments
Mercy and sympathy for the poor and helpless
Obedience to the laws of Moses
Jesus also preached new beliefs:
Called himself the Son of God
Proclaimed that he brought salvation and eternal life to anyone who would believe in him
Jesus also emphasized God’s love and taught the need for justice, morality, and service to others.
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58. Spread of Christianity
At first, the apostles and disciples preached only in Judea.
Disciples began to preach in Jewish communities throughout the Roman world. Jews who accepted the beliefs of Jesus became the first Christians.
Paul spread Christianity beyond the Jewish communities, to non-Jews.
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60. The Early Christian Church
Early Christian communities shared a common faith and a common way of worship.
A bishop was responsible for all Christians in a particular area called a diocese.
Gradually, some bishops became patriarchs, with authority over other bishops in their area.
The Christian Church thus developed a hierarchy.
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61. Religious Diversity in the Early Empire
As long as people honored Roman gods and acknowledged the divine spirit of the emperor, they were allowed to worship other gods as they pleased.
After the Romans conquered Judea, they excused the monotheistic Jews from worshiping the Roman gods.
Rome mistrusted Christians because they refused to make sacrifices to the emperor or honor the Roman gods.
Roman officials persecuted the Christians. Many Christians became martyers, people who suffer or die for their beliefs.
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62. Economic & Social Problems
The Empire in Crisis
With the end of the Pax Romana, political and economic turmoil rocked the Roman empire.
Political Problems
Economic & Social Problems
High taxes to support the army burdened business people and farmers.
Poor farmers were forced to work and live on wealthy estates.
Over cultivated farmland lost its productivity.
Emperors were repeatedly overthrown or assassinated.
In one 50-year period, 26 emperors ruled, and only one died of natural causes.
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63. Two Reformers Diocletian Constantine
Divided the empire into 2 parts each with 2 rulers to make it easier to govern
Tried to increase the prestige of the emperor
Fixed prices to slow inflation, or the rapid rise of prices
Established laws to ensure steady production of food and goods
Continued Diocletian’s reforms
Granted toleration to Christians, which led to the rapid growth of Christianity (Edict of Milan)
Under Theodosius the Great, Rome adopted Christianity as its official religion.
Built a new capital at Constantinople, making the eastern part of the empire the center of power
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64. Foreign Invasions
A weakened Rome could not withstand the forces of Germanic invasions.
The Huns dislodged other Germanic peoples and, little by little, conquered the Roman empire.
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67. A Bit of Perspective