1. Rhetoric, Rationalization, and Bad Argument Strategies
Informal Fallacies and Non-arguments

2. Argument from Outrage When anger functions as a premise
May use selective presentation to attempt to create, increase, or confirm feelings of anger

3. Argument from Outrage When anger functions as a premise
May use selective presentation to attempt to create, increase, or confirm feelings of anger
May attempt to justify letting anger over one thing influence judgment about another, unrelated thing

4. Argument from Outrage When anger functions as a premise
May use selective presentation to attempt to create, increase, or confirm feelings of anger
May attempt to justify letting anger over one thing influence judgment about another, unrelated thing
May simplistically attempt to focus anger on an easy target (scapegoating)
Dennis Miller on war with Iraq: “After 9/11, we had to do something!”

5. Scare Tactics/Argument by Force When fear functions as a premise
May use selective presentation to attempt to create, increase, or confirm feelings of fear

6. Scare Tactics/Argument by Force When fear functions as a premise
May use selective presentation to attempt to create, increase, or confirm feelings of fear
May attempt to justify letting fear of one thing influence judgment about another, unrelated thing

7. Scare Tactics/Argument by Force When fear functions as a premise
May use selective presentation to attempt to create, increase, or confirm feelings of fear
May attempt to justify letting fear of one thing influence judgment about another, unrelated thing
Depends on inappropriate beliefs about what is feared
To consider: Hostage Syndrome -- one feature is acceptance of captors’ beliefs by hostages

8. Argument from Pity When sympathy functions as a premise
Occurs primarily as self-deception

9. Argument from Pity When sympathy functions as a premise
Occurs primarily as self-deception
May make calculated demands on feelings of sympathy and compassion

10. Argument from Pity When sympathy functions as a premise
Occurs primarily as self-deception
May make calculated demands on feelings of sympathy and compassion
May result in assumption of inadequately justified obligations

11. Argument from Pity When sympathy functions as a premise
Occurs primarily as self-deception
May make calculated demands on feelings of sympathy and compassion
May result in assumption of inadequately justified obligations
Can be mitigated by competent moral reasoning (argument qualifies emotion)

12. Argument from Envy When jealousy motivates premises
Apple Polishing When flattery motivates premises
Selection of premises may be influenced by irrelevant feelings
Unstated (assumed) premises are likely
Likely to occur as interior rationalization

13. Wishful Thinking When hope or desire motivates premises
Fallacy includes as a premise the belief that thinking or wishing will change probability

14. Wishful Thinking When hope or desire motivates premises
Fallacy includes as a premise the belief that thinking or wishing will change probability
Key “wishful thinking” premise may be an explicit metaphysical belief

15. Wishful Thinking When hope or desire motivates premises
Fallacy includes as a premise the belief that thinking or wishing will change probability
Key “wishful thinking” premise may be an explicit metaphysical belief
May occur as interior rationalization, explanation of faith, or “cheerleading”

16. Peer Pressure/Group Think When need for approval or belonging motivates premises
Claims accepted (function as true) because the group wants them accepted

17. Peer Pressure/Group Think When need for approval or belonging motivates premises
Claims accepted (function as true) because the group wants them accepted
Known fact: people may change beliefs or interpretations if they find themselves in the minority, even in a group of strangers

18. Peer Pressure/Group Think When need for approval or belonging motivates premises
Claims accepted (function as true) because the group wants them accepted
Known fact: people may change beliefs or interpretations if they find themselves in the minority, even in a group of strangers
As nationalism, may be actively used to discourage critical thinking

19. Rationalizing When inauthentic premises are substituted for true motives to justify a conclusion
Misdirects attention from potentially relevant facts or ideas

20. Rationalizing When inauthentic premises are substituted for true motives to justify a conclusion
Misdirects attention from potentially relevant facts or ideas
May constitute or result from self-deception

21. Rationalizing When inauthentic premises are substituted for true motives to justify a conclusion
Misdirects attention from potentially relevant facts or ideas
May constitute or result from self-deception
Substituted premises may also support unintended conclusions

22. Argument from Popularity/ Tradition/Common Practice When a widely-held belief that something is true or right is deemed sufficient support
Evidence supporting the belief or behavior is not accessible for evaluation

23. Argument from Popularity/ Tradition/Common Practice When a widely-held belief that something is true or right is deemed sufficient support
Evidence supporting the belief or behavior is not accessible for evaluation
Tends to gather strength with repetition

24. Argument from Popularity/ Tradition/Common Practice When a widely-held belief that something is true or right is deemed sufficient support
Evidence supporting the belief or behavior is not accessible for evaluation
Tends to gather strength with repetition
When group decisions have performative power--as in most votes--what the group thinks actually can make a proposition true or make behavior right or wrong

25. Relativism/Subjectivism When truth is reduced to perspective
Matters of fact and matters of opinion must be treated differently

26. Relativism/Subjectivism When truth is reduced to perspective
Matters of fact and matters of opinion must be treated differently
Legitimate differences in perception must be acknowledged

27. Relativism/Subjectivism When truth is reduced to perspective
Matters of fact and matters of opinion must be treated differently
Legitimate differences in perception must be acknowledged
Cultural variables and prerogatives must be identified

28. Relativism/Subjectivism When truth is reduced to perspective
Matters of fact and matters of opinion must be treated differently
Legitimate differences in perception must be acknowledged
Cultural variables and prerogatives must be identified
Moral and ethical values are obvious cases in which preferences are decisive

29. Two Wrongs Fallacy When wrong is taken for right
Begins with A harming B, or even being suspected of thinking harming B is OK

30. Two Wrongs Fallacy When wrong is taken for right
Begins with A harming B, or even being suspected of thinking harming B is OK
B decides to engage in wrongful behavior just because A did or might

31. Two Wrongs Fallacy When wrong is taken for right
Begins with A harming B, or even being suspected of thinking harming B is OK
B decides to engage in wrongful behavior just because A did or might
B’s decision is simply reactive, and not the outcome of reasoned inference

32. Red Herring/Smokescreen When irrelevancies obscure relevant ones
Both tend to introduce material that the audience will find attractive 

33. Red Herring/Smokescreen When irrelevancies obscure relevant ones
Both tend to introduce material that the audience will find attractive 
The red herring introduces distractions, especially ones that share significant features with the issue

34. Red Herring/Smokescreen When irrelevancies obscure relevant ones
Both tend to introduce material that the audience will find attractive 
The red herring introduces distractions, especially ones that share significant features with the issue
The smokescreen introduces new topics and complications that obscure the issue