1. Social Interaction: process by which people act toward or respond to other people and is the foundation for all relationships and groups in society.
Social Structure:
refers to the ways in which people respond to one another- it is the network of interrelated statuses and roles that guide human interaction.

2. Write Down True or False
Most homeless people choose to be homeless.
Homelessness is largely a self-inflicted condition
Homeless people do not work
Most homeless people are mentally ill
Homeless people typically panhandle [beg for money] so that they can buy alcohol and drugs.

3. 6. Most homeless people are heavy drug users
7. A large number of homeless persons are dangerous
8. Homeless persons have existed throughout the history of the United States
9. One out of every homeless persons is a child
10.Some homeless people have attended college and graduated school.

4. Homeless Activity
Eighner’s diving activities reflect a specific social behavior- all activities in life are social in nature
Like scavenging and living on the streets
Homeless people and domiciled persons [people who live in homes] live in social worlds that have predictable patterns of social interaction
We study homelessness to see an example of how a social problem occurs and how they perpetuated in the social structure

5. Social structure is essential for
survival of society
well-being of individual
it provides a social web of familial support and social relationships that connects us to the larger society
Homeless don’t have that link so
a loss of personal dignity
Loss of a sense of moral worth
The homeless are not homeless by choice: remember that!

6. Chapter 4: Social Structure
Section 1: The Components of Social Structure
Section 2: The Structure of Groups and Societies
Section 3: The Nature of Social Interaction
Section 4: The Structure of Formal Organizations

7. Section 1: The Components of Social Structure
Main Idea
Social structure is the network of interrelated statuses and roles that guides human interaction. A status is a socially defined position in society, while a role is the behavior attached to a status.
Reading Focus
What do sociologists mean by the term status?
How are status and roles related?
What are social institutions?

8. Status
A social structure is a network of interrelated statuses and roles that guide human interaction.
A status is a socially defined position in a group or in a society
A role is the behavior-rights and obligations- expected of someone occupying a particular status. –

9. Each individual in society occupies several statuses- you are students, sons, brother/sisters, Arabic…
Ascribed status is assigned according to standards beyond a person’s control
Not based on individual’s abilities, efforts, or accomplishments
Based on inherited traits or assigned automatically when they get to a certain age
Ex: male, female, teen, adult, family heritage, race
Achieved status is acquired by an individual on the basis of some special sill, knowledge, or ability
People have control over these
Ex: any occupation, being lead part in a play, being a spouse, being a parent, being a high school or college graduate, or an athlete

11. Most people have many statuses, but a master status is the one that plays the greatest role in a person’s life.
It can be either ascribed or achieved.
In the United States, we mostly use achieved characteristics like occupation, wealth, marital status, and parenthood to serve as our master status
It can change:
As teen, master status might be being a student or athlete
As adult, it might be based on occupation
Elderly, it might be based on grandparenthood
Master Status

12. You Play Many Different Roles
At home you play the role associated with the status of being a son or daughter
At school you perform the role associated with the status of being a student
All the roles have reciprocal roles: corresponding roles that define the patterns of interaction between related statuses
Cant fulfill role of husband if there is no wife
Doctor-Patient, Athlete-Coach, Employee-Employer, Leader-follower, salesclerk-customer

13. Roles Role Expectations and Role Performance
Role expectations are the socially determined behaviors expected of a person performing a role
Doctors for example are expected to treat their patients with skills and care
Parents expected to provide emotional and physical security for their children
Role performance is the actual behaviors of a person and it may not match the behavior expected of society
Doctors who mistreat their patients
Parents who mistreat their children.

14. Role Conflict, Role Strain, and Role Exit
A role set is the different roles associated with a particular status.
Role conflict occurs when fulfilling the role expectations of one status makes it difficult to fulfill the role expectations of another status
Ex: Being a good employee interferes with being a good parent
Role strain occurs when a person has difficulty meeting the role expectations of a single status
Ex: manager who has to keep her workers positive as they are asked to work long overtime hours
Role exit is the process people go through to detach from a role that was previously central to their social identity.

17. Social Institutions
A social institution is a system of statuses, roles, values, and norms that is organized to satisfy one or more of the basic needs of society.
The family, the most universal social institution, takes responsibility for raising the young and teaching them accepted norms and values.
The economic institution organizes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
The political institution is the system of norms that governs the exercise and distribution of power in society.
Education ensures the transmission of values, patterns of behavior, and certain skills and knowledge.
Religion provides a shared, collective explanation of the meaning of life.

18. Section 2: The Structure of Groups and Societies
Main Idea
Sociologists classify societies according to how each uses technology to meet the needs of its members. Sociologists recognize three broad categories of society—preindustrial, industrial, and postindustrial.
Reading Focus
What are the types of preindustrial societies?
What is the main economic activity in industrial societies?
How do postindustrial societies and industrial societies differ?
What concepts have sociologists used to contrast societies?

19. Features of Group Structure
Looking at features of group structure, characteristics of common types of groups and societies
Features of Group Structure
A group is a set of two or more people who interact on the basis of share expectations and who possess some degree of common identity
From two on a date
To 500 soldiers at boot camp

20. Defining Groups Size Quality Four features: Small or large
Intimate or formal
Four features:
Two or more people
Interaction occurs between members
Shared expectations
Must possess a sense of common identity

21. Interaction, shared expectations, and common identity
An aggregate is when people gather in the same place at the same time but lack organization of lasting patterns of interactions
Ex: people waiting to board a plane or standing in a ticket line at the movies
A social category is a means of classifying people according to a shared trait or common status
i.e. students, women, elderly

22. Size Time Organization A dyad is two people. A triad is three people.
A small group is a group with few enough members that everyone is able to interact face to face
Time
A group can be a one-time meeting or a lifetime.
Interaction is not continuous; there are breaks.
Organization
A formal group has clearly defined structure, goals, and activities.
An informal group has no official structure or rules of conduct.

24. Classify groups on the basis of the degree of intimacy that occurs among group members
Start with a description of the two opposite extremes and they run a line between them called the continuum
Line will show range of possible relationships

25. One example if the primary-secondary continuum
PRIMARY GROUP RELATIONSHIPS
SECONDARY GROUP RELATIONSHIPS
GROUPS OF
FRIENDS
FAMILY
SCHOOL
CLUB
CLASSROOM
JOB

26. Types of Groups Primary Groups Secondary Groups
There are many kinds of groups. Most people belong to several.
Small group that interacts over a relatively long period of time on a direct and personal basis
The most intimate; face-to-face
Informal, communication is deep and intense, personal satisfaction is important
Primary Groups
Group in which interaction is impersonal and temporary
Importance of the individual is in the function that he or she performs in the group
Casual and limited
Members can be replaced
Secondary Groups –

28. Types of Groups (cont.) Reference Groups In-Groups and Out-Groups
A group with whom an individual identifies and whose attitudes and values are adopted
Can have both positive and negative effect on behavior
In-Groups and Out-Groups
In-group: any group that a person belongs to and identifies with
Out-group: any group that the person does not belong to or identify with
Electronic Communities
Have arisen with arrival of internet
Some reflect primary-group dynamics
Social Networks
The web of relationships across groups that occurs because of the many groups people belong to
No clear boundaries

30. Preindustrial Societies
The largest groups studied by sociologists are entire societies. Sociologists categorize societies according to subsistence strategies- the way in which a society uses technology to provide for the needs of its members
Division of labor- is the specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities –

31. In a preindustrial society food production is the main economic activity.
Collect wild plants daily
Hunt for wild animals
Move constantly
Rarely exceed 100 members
Family is main social unit
#1 Hunter-Gatherer Societies
Rely on domesticated animals
Lead a nomadic life
Fewer people produce food
Complex division of labor
Produce some items for trade
Have surplus of good so can support larger populations
#2 Pastoral Societies

33. #3 Horticultural Societies #4 Agricultural Societies
Grow fruits and vegetables in garden plots
Use slash-and-burn techniques
Must wait for rainy seasons to plant
Move to new plot when old becomes barren
Build semipermanent or permanent villages
Village size depends on amount of land for farming
Division of labor creates specialized roles
Economic and political systems more developed because of the settled life
#4 Agricultural Societies
Animals are used to plow fields
Irrigation increases crop yields
Many members are able to engage in specialized roles
Technological innovations allows them to plant more crops and can plant at various times
Cities are formed
Leaders are often hereditary
Marked by powerful armies and the construction of roads
Abandon bartering in order to make trade easier
Power often unequally distributed

35. Sociology in Today’s World
The New Barter
One major development of agricultural societies was the creation of a money system. This system replaced the idea of barter- the practice of exchanging one good for another
As many as 450,000 companies barter in America today.
They trade goods and services through a “barter exchange.”
Barter exchanges make money on barter transactions.
Computer technology makes bartering easier.
Barter allows companies to “buy” goods or services without using cash.
Rapid growth of bartering is changing the economy of the United States. –

36. –

37. ADD THESE AS CAUSES OF AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES

38. Industrial Societies In an industrial society:
Production of food shifts to production of manufactured goods
Production moves from human and animal labor to machines
Increases food production and population
Numbers and kinds of jobs increase
Location of work changes to cities, away from the home
Social processes such as education take the place of family

39. Identify Cause and Effect
Reading Check
Identify Cause and Effect
How does industrialization lead to urbanization?
Answer: Use of centralized power sources (water, steam) moves production from homes to factories; cities form as homes cluster around factories and other businesses, such as stores, are started nearby to serve the increasingly concentrated population

40. Postindustrial Societies
Economic emphasis is on creation and exchange of information and services instead of manufacturing goods
United States is a postindustrial society
Standard of living improves
Education and science are important
Technological advances seen as key

41. Contrasting Societies
Values: Ferdinand Tonnies
Degree of shared values among social members
Gemeinschaft: community
Strong sense of group solidarity- close and center on family and communities
Members know one another
Preindustrial societies, rural
Gesellschaft: society
Relationships are impersonal and often temporary; based on need
Traditional values are weak; individual goals are more important than the group
Urban societies
Unity: Emile Durkheim
Pre-industrial: Held together by mechanical solidarity-close knit social relationships that result when a small group of people share the same values and perform the same tasks
Industrial Society- Held together by organic solidarity- impersonal social relationships that arise within increased job specializations
So depend on one another for survival

42. How do you interact with other people?

43. #1 Exchange
Exchange occurs when people interact in an effort to receive a reward or a return for their actions.
Reward might be tangible or intangible
Reciprocity is the idea that if you do something for someone, that person owes you something in return.
Basis of exchange interactions…rewards are material or nonmaterial
Exchange theory is the idea that people are motivated by self-interest in their interactions with other people.
People do things for rewards; behaviors that are rewarded are repeated
When costs outweigh the rewards, individuals end the relationship
Maximizing rewards, minimizing costs

44. Competition #2 Competition
Competition occurs when two or more people or groups oppose each other to achieve a goal that only one can attain.
Common in Western societies
Sometimes considered basis of capitalism and democracy
Advancement in business, school, sports through competition
Might motivate people to perform society’s needed roles
Can lead to psychological stress, a lack of cooperation, and conflict

45. #3 Conflict
Conflict is the deliberate attempt to control a person by force, to oppose someone, or to harm another person.
Has few rules of accepted conduct
Georg Simmel identified four sources of conflict:
war
conflict within groups
legal disputes
Clashes over ideology [religion or politics]
Positives of having conflict:
Can reinforce group boundaries
Strengthens group loyalty by focusing attention on an outside threat
Draws attention away from internal problems
Leads to social change by bringing problems to forefront and forcing opposing sides to seek solutions

46. #4 Cooperation
Cooperation occurs when two or more people or groups work together to achieve a goal that will benefit more than one person.
A social process that gets things done
May be used along with competition to motivate members to work harder for the group
MEDIATION!!!

47. #5 Accommodation Compromise Truce Mediation Arbitration
Accommodation is a state of balance between cooperation and conflict: give a little, take a little .
Compromise
Each party gives up something they want in order to come to an agreement
Truce
Temporarily brings a halt to the competition or conflict until a compromise can be reached
Mediation
Calling in a third party who guides the two parties toward an agreement
Arbitration
A third party makes a decision that is binding on both parties

50. Section 4: The Structure of Formal Organizations
Main Idea
Formal organizations are complex secondary groups created to achieve specific goals. Most are structured as bureaucracies. Formal and informal structures can affect the efficiency of bureaucracies.
Reading Focus
How do sociologists view formal organizations?
What are the main characteristics of Max Weber’s model of bureaucracies?
What types of relationships are found in formal organizations?
What problems do bureaucracies face?

51. Formal Organizations
Formal organizations are large, complex secondary groups that have been established to achieve specific goals.
Schools, businesses, government agencies, religious organizations, youth organizations, political organizations, volunteer associations, professional associations, and labor unions are examples.
A bureaucracy is a ranked authority structure that operates according to specific rules and procedures….came about in industrialized societies because of rationalization
Bureaucracies existed in ancient Egypt and China, but rose to prominence during the Industrial Revolution.
Rationalization refers to the process by which every feature of human behavior to calculation, measurement, and control.
Use it today to describe organizations that has many departments or bureaus

52. Marx Weber’s Model of Bureaucracies- each bureaucracy has the following characteristics:
1. Division of labor
Work is divided among specialists with specific duties
2. Ranking of authority
There are clear-cut lines of responsibility; each person responsible to a supervisor at a higher level
3. Employment based on formal qualifications
Individuals are hired on the basis of tests, education, or experience.
Workers are replaceable.

53. Weber’s Model of Bureaucracies (cont’d.)
4. Written rules and regulations
There are objective rules that identify each person’s responsibilities and authority of each person on the staff
5. Specific lines of promotion and advancement
Lines of promotion reward loyalty with job security and seniority.

55. Organizations fit this ideal type to varying degrees
Not all are rigid
A non-rigid examples:
voluntary associations which are nonprofit associations formed to pursue some common interest
Membership by choice
Unpaid volunteers
Examples: amateur sports teams, professional associations, service clubs, political interest groups

56. Relationships in Formal Organizations
Informal structures based on strong primary relationships may exist within the most rigid of bureaucracies where members within this rigid system might be really close and friendly
Called “bureaucracy’s other face”
First noted in study of Western Electric Company
Conformity to the norm enforced through negative sanctions…you do something against the team, the team will punish you

58. Problems of Bureaucracies
Weber’s Bureaucracy
Views bureaucracy in a positive light
Gets things done with speed and efficiency
Best way to organize large numbers of people to attain a large goal
Create order by clearly defining tasks
Provide stability- people come and go, but organization continues
Lots of material goods at reasonable prices

59. Flaws of Bureaucracy Several significant weaknesses
1. Goal might be self-continuation and individual goals are lost
2. Individuals develop bureaucratic personalities- job becomes a ritual, and creativity is stifled
Employees might be promoted beyond their level of competence [Laurence J Peter in The Peter Principle]
3. “red tape” involved in dealing with them: employees play a limited role in the overall structure; their knowledge and power is limited; leads to bureaucratic delay
Spend time filling out forms or going from one department to the next
4. Results in oligarchy- power concentrated in the hands of a few people at the top of the bureaucracy in a tendency labeled the iron law of oligarchy

60. 5. Parkinson’s law: “work expands to fill the time available for its completion” Ex: civil servant overworked so can 1. resign 2. cut work in half by sharing it with a new colleague 3. demand assistance of two subordinates #1: UNACCEPTABLE because you’ll lose pension, benefits…. #2 UNACCEPTABLE because now have a rival for promotion #3 ACCEPTABLE because it will make your job look more important because you now control two workers…there must be two so that each is kept in fear of the other person’s promotion ----until they complain they’re being overworked and they get two subordinates each the original now has six he’s in charge of and that calls for a promotion but he’s more overworked because all six send him work to be approved and he must work more to catch up..late hours are a penalty of success

61. Current Research in Sociology
The McDonaldization of Society
Max Weber suggested that as society progressed it would become increasingly guided by rules, regulations, and formal structures. George Ritzer called this tendency McDonaldization.
Four aspects to McDonaldization: efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control
Operations are performed to specific guidelines that maximize efficiency
Uniformity across production lines results in uniform products
Pros: convenient, familiar
Cons: removal of human aspect, no room for innovation, reduction of face-to-face interactions –