1. Psychological Methods
Chapter 2

2. Conducting Research
Section 1

3. The Scientific Method
The five BASIC steps to the scientific method are:
Form a question
Form a hypothesis
Test the hypothesis
Analyze the test results
Draw a conclusion
It is important to note that the steps may have to be repeated if the test does not confirm the hypothesis or answer the question.

4. Forming a Research Question
The best research questions measure ______________.
Some research questions come from psychological theory and others come from folklore or common knowledge.
Ex. “Opposites attract” is a commonly used phrase. Is it true? What research question could you write about this phrase?
behavior

5. Forming a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is simply an ___________ ___________.
Often, these are written in the form of “if-then” statements. Ex. IF I don’t make curfew, THEN I will be grounded.
What would an “if-then” statement about “opposites attract” be?
A hypothesis must be tested because it is only a guess.
Educated guess

6. Testing the Hypothesis
Psychologists test hypotheses through a variety of methods , which will be discussed later.
To test a hypothesis, the psychologist must decide what information is needed, gather and examine it, and then determine if the information is enough to actually test the hypothesis.
A hypothesis is not correct until has been scientifically tested and proven to be correct.
Sometimes multiple tests are needed, and sometimes a test needs to be scrapped in favor of a different hypothesis or a different test.

7. Analyzing the Results
“Analyzing the results” simply means figuring out what their test results, or findings, mean.
Multiple forms of data need to be acquired and considered to determine which data supports the hypothesis and which does not.
Analyzing the results helps psychologists determine whether or not the hypothesis is incorrect, variably correct, completely correct, or even immeasurable.

8. Drawing a Conclusion
After analyzing the results, psychologists draw conclusions about their findings. In other words, they determine what the findings mean.
The purpose of these conclusions is to determine whether or not current beliefs or theories need to be reevaluated.
Once a conclusion has been drawn, in order to prove their accuracy, the study must be replicated (repeated). If the study produces different results, it is not scientifically accurate.

9. Testing the Scientific Method
Using the scientific method, determine something about the behavior of a group of at least five BHS students.
Form a research question.
Write a hypothesis (your educated guess) in an “if- then” statement.
Test your hypothesis.
Analyze your results --- what do they mean?
Draw a conclusion. Do your results support your hypothesis? Explain.

10. Surveys, Samples, and Populations
Section 2

11. Surveying is a direct method of gathering information.
is usually focused on a particular subject.
uses either written questionnaires or direct interviews.
may not provide completely accurate results because people might be dishonest.

12. Populations and Samples
A target population is the entire group you want to study. Ex: BHS students
A sample is a section of the target population. Ex. BHS Seniors
A random sample is created by chance from the target population. Ex. Randomly picking ten Seniors from a Senior meeting
A stratified sample is created by representing the subgroups proportionally. Ex. Picking 10 members of each class based proportionally on gender and race (50% male, 50% female, race proportionate to overall population)

13. Issues with Survey Samples
Findings can be too general. In other words, if you are studying the Southeast, you could generalize that restaurants serve sweet tea if you sampled Tennessee, Georgia, and Kentucky. But it would be too general because the coastal regions of North and South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and most of Florida are not likely to have many restaurants that serve sweet tea.
Volunteer bias may occur because people who volunteer to take surveys may have a different way of viewing the world than someone who does not volunteer. Random samples are more effective than volunteer samples.

14. Methods of Observation
Section 3

15. The Naturalistic-Observation Method
is also called field study.
is often used in our daily lives without us even been aware of it.
is more effective when psychologists try not to interfere with the organisms they are observing.
What are examples of naturalistic behavior? How do we learn?

16. The Laboratory-Observation Method
is useful when something cannot be studied in a naturalistic setting.
doesn’t require a scientific laboratory. A laboratory is any place that provides the opportunity for observation and experimentation.
is sometimes used to give psychologists control over the environment of the study.
What are some examples of laboratories?

17. Analyzing Observations
A correlation is a measure of how closely one thing is related to another, but it doesn’t reveal cause and effect.
A positive correlation means that when one thing goes up, another does too.
Ex. If you study more, your test scores go up.
A negative correlation means that when one thing goes up, another goes down. Ex. When you participate in aerobic exercise more often, your weight goes down.

18. The Testing Method
uses a battery of psychological tests to learn about human behavior.
uses intelligence tests to measure general learning ability.
uses aptitude tests to measure specific abilities and talents, such as musical ability or spatial relations.
uses personality tests to measure character traits and temperaments, such aggression, depression, or anxiety.

19. The Case-Study Method
is an in-depth investigation of an individual or a small group.
uses observation, personal interviews, background research, and personal histories.
are used to create theories that apply to the larger population.
may be inaccurate because of the sampling or flawed memory/recall.
is used by criminal profilers and detectives.

20. The Longitudinal Method
involves long-term studies of a group of participants.
extremely time-consuming and expensive.
are risky because subjects may not remain available.
are important because they observe how individuals change over a longer period of time.
Example: In the 1950s, AT&T hired a psychologist to predict which new employees would make effective managers. Twenty years later, several of the top scorers in the study had been promoted to the top level management positions.

21. The Cross-Sectional Method
is a substitute for the longitudinal method.
studies people of different age groups at the same time instead of the same people over a length of time.
is less reliable than a longitudinal study but is also less expensive.
What are examples of cross-sectional studies?

22. The Experimental Method
All of the observation methods find a correlation rather than cause and effect.
The experimental method is the only method that actually determines cause and effect.
The experimental method is considered more reliable because cause and effect is more reliable than correlation. Other variables can interfere with correlational studies; an experimenter has more control over the variables.

23. The Experimental Method
is used to determine cause and effect.
uses a treatment such as a change in medication.
can be limited if the conditions don’t reflect reality.
may simplify experiences.
contains variables, factors that change. The independent variable is the factor that researchers manipulate so that they can determine its effects. The dependent variable depends on the independent variable.

24. The Experimental Method
If the experiment is a teenager’s driving test, what are the variables? Independent? Dependent? What type of experiment is this?

25. The Experimental Method
The best experiments utilize two groups: experimental groups and control groups.
Experimental groups receive the treatment. Control groups do not.
Controlled experiments uses both types of groups.
Name examples of experiments using control groups.
What would make a controlled experiment invalid?
The placebo effect is simply a treatment that has no real effect except for the person’s belief in it. Giving a hypochondriac sugar pills is an example.

26. The Experimental Method
The best experiments utilize two groups: experimental groups and control groups.
Experimental groups receive the treatment. Control groups do not.
Controlled experiments uses both types of groups.
Name examples of experiments using control groups.
What would make a controlled experiment invalid?
The placebo effect is simply a treatment that has no real effect except for the person’s belief in it. Giving a hypochondriac sugar pills is an example.

27. Single-Blind vs. Double Blind Studies
In a single-blind study, the participants don’t know whether they are in the experimental group or the control group.
In a double-blind study, both the participants and the researchers do not know who receives the treatment.
Which do you think is more reliable? Why?

28. Double-blind studies are required by the FDA before new drugs can be marketed.

29. Ethical Issues
Confidentiality means respecting a patient’s right to privacy. When may confidentiality be disregarded?
Informed Consent means that people agree, or consent, to participate in a research study only after they have been given a general overview of the research.
Deception can ONLY be used if the benefits of the research outweighs the potential harm; when psychologists believe participants would have been willing to participate if they had known the benefits; and when participants receive an explanation of the study after it has occurred.

30. Works Consulted
Kasschau, Richard A. Understanding Psychology. Columbus, Ohio: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, Print.
Rathus, Spencer A. Holt Psychology: Principles in Practice. Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Print.