1. Sentences as Arguments
PREPARED BY:
Hawa Ghabag

2. O U T L I N E: Introduction
Types of clauses with an embedded sentences...
Full statement clauses
Question clauses
Infinitive clauses
Gerund clauses
Non-factual clauses
Verbal nouns
Comparing types of clauses
Syntactic ambiguity

3. Introduction
A sentence is a group of words in a particular sequence and have a meaning. The argument is an expression in the sentence which completes the meaning of the predicate. . What is the embedded clause? The embedded clause is a grammatical unit that includes a subject and a verb, which supports the main clause . In other words; it’s information; put into the middle of the sentence to give the reader more information and enhance the sentence .

4. Ex : They know (that) I opened the letter
Ex : They know (that) I opened the letter. My bike, that is very old, is broken. Both sentences have embedded clauses, but the first sentence is a nominal clause, and the second is a relative clause.

5. Predicates that have embedded sentences as a theme include the following, those that express:  
knowledge or ignorance of a possible fact
Ex: Ivan KNOWS (that) we are here.
an attitude or orientation toward a fact or possible fact
Ex: Jean is DISAPPOINTED (that) you can’t join us.
causing, allowing, or preventing the occurrence of a fact
Ex: Mama LET me hold the baby.

6. the beginning, continuing, or termination of a possible event
perception of a fact
Ex: Lina HEARD a baby crying.
saying something about a fact or possible fact
Ex: Please TELL us if you feel ill.
the beginning, continuing, or termination of a possible event
Ex: Suddenly it STARTED to rain.

7. Types of clauses Full statement clause (with overt subject): Ex:
Full statement clause (with overt subject):
 Ex:
Lina knows (that) I ate the sandwich.
affected predicate s-theme
The embedded clause mostly occurs in the object position, and the subject clauses at the beginning of a sentence are unusual.

8. Full question clauses (with overt subject):
Lina asked me where the meeting was.
affected predicate Q-theme
Lina wonders if you have a holiday.
I think whether your friends will stay or leave.

9. Infinitive clause (with overt subject):
Infinitive clause (with overt subject):
George expects Ella to win the game.
Affected predicate s-theme
Infinitive clause (with tacit subject):
George expects to win the game.

10. Note:
When the infinitive clause is the object of a certain small group of verbs, the preposition (to)
does not appear.
Ex:
Mam let Lina hold the baby.
Lina helped her husband change a tire.

11. Gerund clause (with overt subject):
They watched me opening the letter.
Gerund clause (with tacit subject):
I denied opening the letter.
A small group of adjectives takes gerund clause complements, with preposition between adjective and gerund.
Ex:
Who is responsible for doing this?
I’m grateful for your taking time off.

12. Non-factual clause (with overt subject):
Ex::
I insist that Lina works/has been working very hard.
I insist that Lina work very hard.
I insist that Lina should work very hard.
The factual clause can have various modifications of the verb, however the non-factual clause has no such modifications.

13. verbal nouns (with overt subject):
They excused my opening of the letter.
verbal nouns (with tacit subject) :
I defended the opening of the letter.
If the verb has an overt subject, that subject becomes possessive before the verbal noun. And if the verb has a tacit subject, the verbal noun is preceded by ‘the’.
The verbal nouns are the same of gerund verbs by adding -ing to the verb, they only differ in the Syntactic construction.

14. Comparing types of clauses
Different kinds of clauses carry different kinds of meanings, however this is obvious only when the same predicate can be accompanied by different kinds of clauses. The verb agree, for instance, can be followed by an infinitive clause and a full clause.
 Ex :
1- We agreed to meet again the next day.
2- We agreed that we would meet again the next day.
3- We agreed that prices are too high nowadays.

15. Infinitive and gerund clauses :
 Gerund clause and full clause :
 Ex:
6- Your son admitted breaking our window.
7- Your son admitted that he broke our window.
8- Your son admitted that this ball is his.
Infinitive and gerund clauses :
10- The museum wouldn’t allow us to photograph the exhibit.
11- The museum wouldn’t allow photographing the exhibit.

16. Syntactic ambiguity
A Sentence may includes syntactic ambiguity, which is different from the lexical ambiguity and referential ambiguity . Syntactic ambiguity may be in the surface structure of a sentence: words can cluster together in different possible constructions. Or it may also be in the deep structure: one sequence of words may have more than one interpretation generally because the rules of sentence construction allow ellipsis, the deletion of what is ‘understood.’

17. Examples of surface ambiguity:-
Constructions containing the coordinators and / or:
1- John and Mary or Pat will go.
([John] and [Mary or Pat] or [John and Mary] or [Pat]).
A coordinate head with one modifier:
2- The only people left were old men and women.
([old men] and [women] or [old [men and women]).

18. A head with a coordinate modifier: 5- Your essay should contain four or five hundred words. ([4] or [500] , [400] or [500]) A head with an inner modifier and an outer modifier: 6- The sick pet was taken to a small animal hospital. ([small] [animal hospital] or [small animal] [hospital]) A complement and modifier or two complements: 7- Joe bought the book for Lina. ([bought] [the book for Lina] or [bought the book] [for Lina]

19. 9- The tennis courts are open to members only on Sundays
Certain function words, including not, have possible differences in scope:
9- The tennis courts are open to members only on Sundays
([members only] or [only on Sundays])
B. Examples of deep structure ambiguity:-
Gerund + object or participle modifying a noun.
1- Overtaking cars on the main road can be dangerous.
(‘Overtaking cars is dangerous’ or ‘Cars overtaking are dangerous’)

20. Adjective + infinitive, tied to subject or to complement:
Adjective + infinitive, tied to subject or to complement:
2- The chicken is too hot to eat.
(‘Too hot to eat anything’ or ‘too hot for anybody to eat it’)
Ellipsis in comparative constructions:
3- I like Mary better than Joan.
(‘Better than I like Joan’ or ‘better than Joan likes Mary’)

21. THE END