History and Philosophy in Sport and Physical Education

History and Philosophy in Sport and Physical Education
Chapter 1 Mechikoff & Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

History Working definition: the study of change over time
Historians examine how civilizations and institutions (e.g., sport) change over time identify people and events in this change History documents what happened and then asks “why?” “What”—usually through artifacts, documents, photos, etc. “Why”—more difficult Theories come into play here (modernization, etc.)

Why Study (Sport) History?
Provides context and perspective Studying past civilizations helps explain what various cultures considered important “Whoever would know the heart and mind of America had better learn baseball.”1 Predictive History tends to be cyclical “Those who do not know history are condemned to repeat its mistakes.”2

Sport—Then Jockey on horse (“Jockey Boy of Artemission”), bronze, second century B.C. (National Archeological Museum, Athens) Photo by A. Price

. . . and Now Jockeys, horse race
Photo courtesy of McGraw-Hill Higher Education

General Types of History
Descriptive: Tells what happened in past. Tries to be objective. Generally concerned with the who, what, when, and where Also known as chronological or narrative Interpretive: Uses a set of rules or theory to show and analyze change over time.

Interpretive Often reveals the “how” and “why” Subjective: person selects the theory or theories that will be used to interpret change over time e.g., feminist, postmodernist, critical

Which is better? Quality determined by sources employed, not by type or theory

Doing History: Sources
Two types: primary and secondary Primary First-hand account Newspaper and other artifact sources pottery, statues, poems, etc. Example: an autobiography or written account by an Olympic athlete at the Athens Games

Doing History: Sources
Secondary: Telling the story from other sources Producer was not there Includes books and articles which can use both primary and secondary sources Which source type is better? Depends on the quality of the source

Philosophy Derived from the Greek word philosophia
“love of wisdom” Contemporary philosophy: can be defined as the systematic investigation of reality, knowledge, and values

Philosophy: Areas of Study
Epistemology: the study of the nature of knowledge Metaphysics: the study of the nature of reality Ontology: the study of the nature of being Cosmology: the study of the nature of the universe Theology: the study of the nature of God

Philosophy: Areas of Study
Axiology: the study of the nature of value Ethics: the study of the nature of good Aesthetics: the study of the nature of beauty Politics: the study of the nature of the common good

Metaphysics/Ontology
Metaphysics—ultimate nature of reality distinguishes between the real and the unreal Ontology- branch of metaphysics; deals with reality related to humans and “being” Does being involve only mind, or mind and body? Metaphysics Ontology matter body idea mind

Greek Example Western world subscribes to Greek metaphysical and ontological positions Reality consists of two separate components: idea and matter Metaphysical dualism. Being (existence) is composed of mind and body Greek ontology is founded upon dualism

Interpretive Frameworks
Ontology: nature of mind/body Modernization theory Urbanization/industrialization

Ontology: Nature of Mind & Body
Relationship between mind and body is critical to understanding the text Relationship between mind and body changes over time Relationship of sport is directly related to the value of the body in a given culture The more important the body is, the more central sport is The more important the mind, the less central sport is

Ontology Across Time

Modernization Theory (Adelman)
An interpretive model that seeks to explain “change over time” Divides culture into “premodern” (traditional) and “modern” Cultures tend to move from premodern to modern characteristics

Premodern Culture: Characteristics
Stable Local Paternalistic hierarchy in both family and society Absence of specialized roles Family and community woven together with respect to labor, leisure, and religion Dependence on manual labor/muscle power

Premodern Culture: Characteristics
Cyclic time: past, present, and future are same Ritual flows through the entire experience of culture, explaining the meaning of life No boundaries between secular and religious life No boundaries between work and leisure Prevailing attitude is one of acceptance or resignation Repetition is encouraged

Modern Culture: Characteristics
Dynamic Cosmopolitan Functional social structure: conforms to shifting politics and economics Meritocratic Highly specialized Family and community divided by socio-economic status, job, etc.

Modern Culture: Characteristics
Technological Linear time: minutes are mortal Belief that we are rational Separation between church and state Boundaries between work and leisure Desire for change and the belief that it can be achieved through the application of rational analysis

Premodern and Modern Sport
Organization Formal Differentiated at local, regional, national levels Rules formal, standard, written rational and overseen by organization Premodern Organization Nonexistent or informal Arranged directly or indirectly Rules simple, unwritten based on local customs/traditions

Competition locally meaningful Roles loose distinction among players/spectators Modern Competition national and international Roles—specialists distinction between players/spectators

Public information limited, local, oral Stats/records nonexistent, perhaps anecdotal Modern Public information Regular: in local and national mediums Stats/records kept regularly important measures of achievement

Industrialization/Urbanization
Another paradigm to understand change in sport over time Views one’s leisure activities dependent on living pattern Shift from rural to urban patterns Move from country games to city games from hunting and fishing to urban games

Industrialization/Urbanization
Concept of enclosure becomes important Space is limited one’s recreational pursuits are guided into confined spaces Example: American basketball Availability of lots of people makes possible team games

Definitions: Sport, Play, Games
From French de(s)porter and Latin deportare “Amusing oneself” Modern interpretation: encompasses competition in numerous forms A working definition of sport involves play and games

Play: any nonutilitarian and autotelic physical or intellectual activity Nonutilitarian—no motives other than to participate Autotelic—done for its own sake and not for a specific reason Can be spontaneous or organized (games) A larger domain than sport

A play activity which has explicit rules, specified or understood goals . . ., the element of opposition or contest, recognizable boundaries in time and sometimes in space, and a sequence of actions which is essentially “repeatable” every time the game is played.3

Sport: Working Definition
. . . a playful physical activity that has: Continuity (longevity) Division of roles Dynamic interaction with an audience A supporting sport establishment

Classical Western Philosophies
The mind/body relationship determines much of what is taught and how it is taught in physical education. Platonic dualism and Descartes’ rationalism Have in common the view that the mind and body are separate and distinct entities. Hobbes’ empiricism: argues that there is only the material world and physical bodies in it.

From Dualism to Monism Twentieth century philosophies try to reconcile mind and body Monist philosophies: view humans as an integrated whole Mind and body are not separate Knowledge exists in the entire person Focus is not on the nature of a person, but how that person experiences reality

Twentieth Century Monistic Philosophy
Pragmatism—one of first to reject dualism Pragmatists argue that experience, and therefore the body, is where one begins to come to know reality Pragmatists also argue that man is an embodied entity (mind and body are integrated)

Existentialism Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)
Argued for existence of God Religion useless if we “reason” our way back to God Three stages of life experience: Aesthetic, Ethical, Religious Some progress through stages, others remain in first stage forever

Existentialism Third stage is superior
All three stages reflect the attempt to win salvation and achieve satisfaction or “life’s greatest good” Was an existentialist because of emphasis on experience

Phenomenology Emphasize epistemology Emphasizes experience
Body accesses world/knowledge (instrument) Body has inherent meaning Body is not enemy of reason/mind Emphasizes experience Meaning not explained by mind or senses alone must be LIVED Awareness and meaning associated with movement

Phenomenology and Existentialism
Both promote subjective experiences that enhance life Promote movement and experiences within Experience is where one comes to know reality

References George Santayana, “The life of reason,” quoted in J.T. English, A Garden Book of Profundities, Atticisms, and Smartalek Sayings, 9th ed. (Tacoma, WA: Universidy of Puget Sound, 1905), 60. Jacques Barzun, “God’s Country and Mine,” quoted in English, Garden Book of Profundities, Atticisms, and Smartalek Sayings, 5 L.P. Ager, “The Reflection of Cutlural Values in Eskimo Children’s Games,” in D. Calhoun, Sport, Cuture, and Personality (Champaign: Human Kinetics, 1987), 47.

Sumer, Egypt, China, and Mesoamerica

Introduction: Cultural Components of Civilization
Like today, ancient societies valued Athletic ability Physical fitness Competition Play These similarities serve evolutionary purpose E.g. survival of the fittest

Introduction: Sport and Adaptation
Hunt for food as individuals and team Best hunter was honored and participated in playful activities Desire to survive, compete for honor, and win is part of culture and expressed through games and sports

Introduction: Sport and Warfare
Warfare was routine in ancient times Formed armies, physical training programs, and warriors Required for military combat training: endurance running, wrestling, and swimming Combat sports emerged which are still popular today martial arts, boxing, wrestling, spear throwing (javelin), and archery

Introduction: Common Themes
Need to Insure survival Compete Be victorious Play

Sumer—4000 B.C. World's first known civilization
Located in Mesopotamia, a region lying in present-day Iraq “cradle of civilization” Sumerian civilization flourished more than 5,000 years ago

Sumerian Society Developed cuneiform writing Valued law and order
Replaced oral tradition as first written system of communication Valued law and order Created a collection of laws called “Hammurabi's Code” 1800 B.C. Kept records, literary tradition Theology: initially, Sumerians believed they existed to serve the gods

Sumerian Society: Changing Theology
Rulers (kings) broke free from subservience to gods Became representatives of the gods Finally synonymous with gods Only gods and kings had right to express individuality Ordinary people were expendable View of the body: Sumerians did not place much value on the body

Sumerian Society The human body was rarely used as a subject by Sumerian artists. “Nakedness expressed humiliation and subjection…” (Olivova, 1984),

Sumeria and Sport Lion hunting a popular sport: warriors and aristocrats displayed courage, athletic ability Sumerian society demonstrates the connection that religion had with sport in premodern cultures Most famous Sumerian king was Gilgamesh, who ruled during 27th century B.C. Honored as being excellent hunter and warrior

Sumer Economic and political system were highly developed
Trade, travel, entertainment, and warfare were routine activities Warriors engaged in activities that developed their athletic ability and necessitated development of physical fitness

Ancient Egypt (3000 B.C.) Prominent part of the history of civilization Array of historical artifacts Rich history Moses led Israelites out after 900 years of Egyptian civilization Ruled by pharaohs

Political and Cultural Impact
Egyptian civilization was admired by ancient Greeks and Romans Science of medicine emerged in Egypt Magic used to cure diseases Skill as doctors and surgeons known all over the ancient world Culture and the significance of sport and play are revealed by tomb paintings

Egypt: Tomb Relief Bas-relief of Ramses II found at Sakkara, Egypt
Image Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Early Dynastic Period (3000 - 1500 B.C.)
Artifacts show evidence of widespread sports and games Combat sports like boxing and wrestling Combat sports existed because of the constant threat of war Archery, running, and swimming insured one's survival in war Competitions were held in these sports Fishing, boating, board games also popular

Sport in Egypt Sports were a means by which famous Egyptian monarchs represented themselves to their people. Egyptian monarchs exhibited physical strength, courage and the ability to engage in various athletic activities. Egypt’s queens were also portrayed as “sports fans.”

Sport in Egypt Egyptians and war Superb warriors
Physical training for soldiers was harsh and physically demanding Bow and arrow, foot speed were primary weapons Archery and combat sports played a vital role in preparation for war

Sport/Recreation in Egypt
Hunting very popular Music, singing, and dancing Wrestling, games of chance, and ball games Rock tombs in Egypt: murals Track & field, swimming, wrestling, dancing, gymnastics, hockey and yoga-type exercises Significant influence on Greek and Roman medicine, science, and sports

China Cultural history of China began about 1500 B.C.
In over 2,400 years, 10 dynasties ruled China Archaeological evidence reveals that organized sports and games existed in China B.C.

Chinese Culture (1500 B.C.-900 A.D.)
Feudal political system Military training necessary for warlords and emperors Trained knights to battle on chariots Chariots were manned with a driver, spearman, and an archer

Chinese Culture Military training (cont.)
Infantrymen and peasants followed the chariots Depended on their athletic skill and physical fitness Played a form of football for military training

Chinese Culture Terracotta soldiers from the tomb of Qin Shinguang Di: The tomb was completed in about 210 B.C. It contains a terracotta army of about 8,000 life-sized men and horses, grouped into specific military battle formations; wooden chariots have also been found. The men are in uniforms representing various ranks, and they carry real weapons. Image source: Royalty-Free/CORBIS; courtesy of McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

China: Sport & Recreation
As in Sumer and Egypt, Chinese nobility lived luxuriously Enjoyed sports and recreation Played cards, chess, and board and table games Hunting was popular with both nobility as a sport and peasants as a means of securing food

China: Popular Sports Boxing, 527 A.D.
Complex system of 170 movements by 1070 A.D. Martial arts evolved from Chinese philosophy and need for warriors Initially a system of military training

China: Popular Sports Martial Arts
Began to develop and reflect elements of Chinese philosophy Yin and yang: positive & negative forces in the universe Later incorporated jingluoxue science of attending to the main and collateral channels found in the body

Mesoamerica Geographical region
northern Mexico southward to Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador Ball games were popular in antiquity, just as they are today Ulama: ball game beginning in 1800 B.C., continued by Mayans & Aztecs Religious, cultural, competitive elements

Mesoamerica Ulama: ball courts discovered dating from 1500 B.C.
Tchlactli: magnificent ballcourts Games had strong religious overtones Human sacrifice: a common component (losing and/or winning teams might be sacrificed, to give gods the “best”) Served ritualistic purposes Fertility, harvest, appease the gods

Mesoamerica Ball court characteristics
Oblong shape, similar to letter “I” Thick, high ornamental walls Stone ring (tlachtemalacatl) in middle of side wall served as goal Ball court at Chichen Itza is the largest discovered; reliefs show players and ritual sacrifice

Ball Court at Chichen Itza
Ball court at Chichen Itza, Mexico, the largest known ball course (545 X 232 feet). It is oblong and has thick, ornamental walls. Image source: Photo by Linda Ginsburg

Mesoamerica Use of hard rubber ball necessitated protective equipment for players Gloves, arm guards, knee pads, chest protector Fast-paced, athletic ball game shares characteristics with modern sports like baseball, basketball, and squash Spanish explorers took Indian athletes back to Spain to demonstrate the ball game for the king

Ball Court at Chichen Itza
Relief showing ballplayer’s equipment Detail of stone relief carving at the ball court in Chichen Itza, Mexico. The ballplayer wears equipment reminiscent of several of today’s sport. Image source: Royalty-Free/CORBIS; courtesy of McGraw-Hill Higher Education

Greek Influence Greeks developed much of the Western world’s belief about the body and physical education Likely with Judaic and Phoenician influences Two metaphysical systems in Greece Naturalistic: man’s nature is both spiritual and corporeal (physical) Achieving balance is desired Emphasized physical and intellectual education

Greek Metaphysics Opposing views (cont.)
Anti-naturalistic: man’s nature created by mind Mind held in higher esteem than body Physical education not necessary View of physical education: result of a specific metaphysical position Both views held the mind in high esteem Differed on importance of the body Naturalistic view far more popular

Philosophical Positions: The Body
Dualism Explanation of human existence based upon both metaphysical and theological beliefs Socrates and Plato Has profound implications for physical education Separates human existence into two parts, mind and body.

Dualism (cont.) Elevates mind over body—regulates the corporeal to an inferior status Reality and truth revealed through the mind, not the body Mind and ideas are eternal, the body decays Most dualists believe it is essential to develop the intellectual ability over the physical Philosophy was the highest pursuit in Ancient Greece

Dualism (cont.) Body is enemy of the mind Deceives as to what is real Only in death is the mind truly free of the body Potentially damaging for view of physical education

Plato: View of Physical Education
Initially seems that he doesn’t support it (Phaedo) Later supports ideal education as harmony of mind (music) and body (gymnastics) Does harmonious imply equality?

Classical Humanism Emphasized existence as humans—welfare of the individual is most important Body was important One’s purpose in the universe was to work out his destiny Plato was not a humanist Emphasized mind more than the body

Classical Humanism Greek gods thought of as ideal humans
Anthropomorphic Depicted as having magnificent bodies (Zeus, Apollo, Athena, etc.) Greeks wanted to resemble their gods Sought to train and develop the body

Greek Ideals: Arete and Agon
Ideals that resonated with every Greek Greeks were most like the gods when striving and competing for excellence The Greek ideal was the excellent scholar-athlete-soldier

Marble carving from the façade of the Treasury of the Athenians, Delphi, ca. 490 B.C. (Archeological Museum of Delphi). Herakles was a mythological Greek hero known for his great strength. One of the so-called Twelve Labours of Herakles was to kill the Nemean lion and bring back its skin; in this sculpture, Herakles is shown wearing the lion’s skin as a cloak. Image source: Photo courtesy K. Price Herakles, wearing a cloak made from the skin of the Nemean lion

Arete is possible only while individual is striving Those who think they have attained it have lost it Have passed into hubris (excessive pride) Arete includes virtue, skill, prowess, pride, excellence, valor, and nobility (Stephen Miller)

Arete was not limited to athletes Bestowed on public servants, poets, philosophers, and soldiers

Agon: Homer referenced as a meeting place where athletic events were held Expanded from athletic competitions Included competitions in music, poetry, public speaking and other events Evolved into the term agonistic (competitive) Became associated with the process (agony) of preparing for competition of any kind

Greek Sport Historical foundations Birth of Olympic Games (776 B.C.)
Funeral Games honored the deceased and pleased the Gods Climate in Greece allowed for physical activity year round

Greek Sport: Historical Perspectives
Romantic view: Rise and fall approach Glory years in fifth and sixth centuries Declined with Roman conquest and Christianity Traditional View Sport evolved from games described by Homer

Greek Sport: Historical Perspectives
Modern sport historians Many are “nontraditionalists” Sport grew out of Greek contact with surrounding civilizations

Athens and Sparta: A Tale of Two City-States
Greece composed of city-states Not politically unified Athens and Sparta most famous Had highly contrasting cultures Athens: center of culture and learning Sparta: military power with warrior-citizens

Athens and Sparta: Views on Physical Education
Obsessed with the military Education was domain of the state State’s purpose was to produce soldiers Physical education was taken very seriously Educated Spartans were physically fit, good soldiers

Athens and Sparta: Views on Physical Education
Physical education had prominent place Education of mind and body was essential Athenians were educated by their families Beliefs were similar to our health clubs and personal trainers today

Athletic Participation of Greek Women
Spartan women Participated in gymnastics and rigorous physical fitness and sports programs Common belief was that physical fitness and training were for both sexes Spartan women competed in foot races and other sports

Athenian women did not participate to extent of Spartan women Euripides (426 B.C.): “A Spartan girl could not be chaste if she wanted…They share the same race track and palaestra—a situation I find insufferable” Married women were forbidden under pain of death from attending Olympic Games

Held own athletic contests to honor wife of Zeus (Hera) Included foot races Used same stadium at Olympia Took place after the Olympic Games Same judges (Hellanodikai) as the Olympic Games

Ancient Olympic Games First recorded evidence of the Olympic Games: 776 B.C. Olympic Games occurred every fourth year (Olympiad) Games may have originated in the hundreds of festivals, mostly religious, held over the years Athletic contests were a major activity in festivals across Greece; a number of stadiums survive

Panhellenic Games Location Name Honored god Victory wreath Olympia
Olympic Games Zeus Olive Delphi Pythian Games Apollo Laurel Corinth Isthmian Games Poseidon Pine Nemea Nemean Games Celery

Stadium at Olympia Stadium at Olympia
Image source: Photo courtesy K. Price

Stadium at Delphi Stadium at Delphi
Image source: Photo courtesy A. Price

Ancient Nemean Games Race in Armor
Athlete competing in race in armor (Museum at Ancient Nemea, Greece) Image source: Photo by Robert Mechikoff Race in Armor

Ancient Olympic Games Elaborate statues and other art forms erected
Celebrated military triumphs as well as athletic success Greeks believed victory (athletics, military, etc.) was ordained by the gods Olympia was a sacred location where victory was rewarded Cheating occurred at Olympic Games as well as other athletic festivals in Greek world Financial and material gain by victory in the Games

Ancient Olympic Games Only males were permitted to compete and watch
Married women were not allowed to attend, on pain of death; virgins could attend Women who represented the priestess Demeter could view the Games Showed the relationship between the ancient Games and theology Women who owned a horse and chariot could enter the competition—but not watch it Daughter of Spartan king was victorious in fourth century B.C.

Ancient Olympic Games By 472 B.C. games were five days long
Half competitive events, half religious events Also had non-athletic competition Competitions in arts, philosophy, poetry, music Spirit of the games: originally religious Gave way to attitude of celebrity City states lured Olympians to their city by wealth and material possessions

Ancient Olympic Games Olympic champions became heroic
Closest thing to a god as mortal can become. Given special privileges and could make vast sums of money by continuing to win. Received a lifetime pension

Gift from a Champion Charioteer
Bronze statue of charioteer, Delphi, originally belonging to a group that featured a chariot drawn by four horses. The statue was dedicated to Apollo by Polyzalos of Gela in 478 B.C., after he won the chariot race at the Pythian Games. Image source: Photo by K. Price Bronze statue, gift of the winner of the Chariot race at the Pythian Games

Ancient Olympic Games Greeks believed in developing the mind and body
Olympics were pinnacle of this achievement Plato, Aristotle and other famous philosophers gathered at Olympia Theodosius I and II: first Christian emperors of Rome Outlawed pagan cults in A.D. 393 Ordered destruction of pagan temples (including temple at Olympia) in A.D. 435 Games tied to pagan religious buildings may then have ceased at most locations; the Games may have continued at some locations for a time

The Etruscans Etruscan rule: approximately 600 B.C. to 509 B.C.
Lived in North Central Italy Scholars don’t agree on where they originated Archeology uncovered burial tombs

The Etruscans 1958: discovery of tomb containing elaborate paintings depicting various sporting scenes Known as the Tomb of the Olympic Games Other tombs were discovered later Depict footraces, jumping contests, discus, chariot racing, vaulting over wooden hurdles, swimming, gymnastics, armed combat

The Etruscans Statues depict men and women wrestlers competing against each other. Suggests that Etruscan men and women were both active and competed against each other Employed sports and athletic festivals for entertainment

Etruscan Sport Tendency for violence:
Used prisoners as sacrifices to honor the dead Later used prisoners as “performers” who entertained by fighting to the death Etruscan cities often centered around arenas which served as sporting venues Romans adopted various Etruscan customs and practices after conquering them in 509 B.C.

Ancient Rome Roman Republic (established following victory over Etruscans in 509 B.C.) Roman Empire (established in 27 B.C.) Empire divided in fourth century A.D. Western Empire, centered in Rome, lasted until A.D. 476 Eastern Empire, centered in Constantinople (now Istanbul), lasted until A.D. 1453

Roman Emperor Nero Heavily influenced by Greek culture
Believed Greeks alone worthy of his genius Demanded a special Olympic Games be held in his honor Competed in chariot race but fell Declared winner anyway Victory revoked by Greeks after his death

Romans and Greeks: Cultural Analysis
Romans valued intellect and culture much less than Greeks Focused on practical versus aesthetic Romans did not contribute much to philosophic and scientific advancement compared to Greeks Most Romans did not share the Greek belief in the “holistic” development of man (arete)

Romans and Greeks Romans were focused on the practical and purposeful—very utilitarian Great civil engineers, many Roman roads still in use Very effective administrators Developed Roman law Incorporated aspects of conquered nations’ cultures if they bettered Roman practices Greeks very reluctant to do this

Roman Architecture Romans were great builders and engineers
Oculus and dome of the Pantheon, Rome, an example of Roman architecture; many roads, wall, and buildings survive from the period. The Pantheon is the oldest standing domed structure. The dome symbolizes the heaven of the Roman gods and the vastness of the empire. In the center is the oculus, a round hole 30 feet in diameter; as the earth turns, sunlight moves around the interior of the building. Image source: Karl Weatherly/Getty Images. Pantheon, Rome

Romans and Greeks Romans were polytheistic (like the Greeks)
Roman gods were essentially Greek gods with Roman names During the Empire, some Romans rejected the mythology and started to embrace Christianity

Roman Beliefs Military training took precedence over intellectual achievement Religion: relatively spirit-less lacked ceremony, mystery, and awe Philosophers provided code of conduct Character formation: critical to development of citizens and survival of the Republic Romans were much more inclusive of other cultures than Greeks

Philosophic Orientation: the Cynics
A group devoted to the teaching of Socrates Believed in the importance of character, and the indifference to circumstance influenced the Stoics and, later, some ascetic Christians Believed Socratic maxim, “no harm can come to a good man” Suffering, pain, poverty should be ignored Political relationships are pointless and should be ignored

Philosophic Orientation: the Stoics
Zeno established his own school of philosophy—stoicism Broke with the Cynics since Zeno was concerned with political life Influenced by Plato and Aristotle regarding politics Unlike Plato and Socrates, the Stoics trusted the body Sense perceptions used to acquire knowledge Body was significant

The Stoics Rejected metaphysics and religious claims on morality
Emphasized attainment of personal happiness through positive personal conduct no matter what life dealt

Stoics and Roman Society
Stoicism appealed to Roman society: Individualism—master of your own fate Personal conduct, character development Acceptance of fate Reflected lack of emotion and strict discipline Recent “Gladiator” movie displays this ethos Essential for Roman rule and organization

Epicureans Rejected metaphysical or religious claims on one’s behavior (similar to Stoicism) Argued against idealism Body was important for knowing, discovering reality Promoted the development of cultured individuals who found happiness through the joys of the mind Sought happiness in good conduct, friendship, and aesthetic enjoyments

Epicurean Thinkers Marcus Tullius Cicero: great orator and philosopher
Challenged unethical politics of Julius Caesar Banished from Rome due to criticisms Became social critic of arena sports as representative of larger Roman social problems Influenced by Greek philosopher Antiochus Concerned with ethics and optimum development of mind and body

Roman Sport: Change Over Time
Early Republic: people kept physically fit and engaged in athletic contests but were not interested in Greek-style formal athletic competition Upper class developed ball games, massage, thermae (bathing pools) Some wealthy Romans accepted the Greek concept of health gymnastics Honored their gods through physical activities Foot races, ball playing, equestrian displays, and wrestling

Roman Sport: Change Over Time
Late Republic/Empire era: Less interested in personal physical fitness Greek athleticism not valued militarily by utilitarian Romans Rome became a nation of spectators Mass entertainment, spectacle, and carnage Games and sport did not facilitate physical education as they did in Greece

Roman Sport and the Military
Military extremely important Affected views of physical training Youth were trained to make obedient, disciplined soldiers Prestigious profession Legions were feared throughout ancient world Stoic philosophy supported military system Graphic taken from sample Instructor Resource CD (McGraw-Hill publisher) sent to me as an example (author: Angela Lumpkin)

Roman Science: Claudius Galen
Sometimes called father of sports medicine studied medicine at seventeen Practiced on gladiators First to apply medicine and biomechanics to exercise. Opposed to professional athlete Agreed with Greeks about “moderation in all things” Graphic taken from sample Instructor Resource CD (McGraw-Hill publisher) sent to me as an example (author: Angela Lumpkin)

Women and Sport Women’s role not nearly as documented as men’s role
for entertainment value; not taken seriously Social and political system was based on patriarchy and class stratification Athletic competition was the domain of Roman men Women participated in swimming, dancing, ball games, and thermae

Women and Sport “Romanized” Olympic Games had wrestling and running contests for women Archaeological evidence that women competed as gladiators Roman officials outlawed participation at certain times Graphic from sample Instructor Resource CD (McGraw-Hill publisher) sent to me as an example (author: Angela Lumpkin)

Games and Spectacles Religious holidays became elaborate festivals
53 public holidays in 173 B.C.; nearly 200 by 300 A.D. Politicians often funded spectacles to get voter support Spectacles took place frequently to pacify the people Government believed bored citizens would revolt Included gladiatorial fights, horse and chariot races, and various other forms of combat

Games and Spectacles: Arenas
Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum) Engineering marvel; scented water cooled spectators Food and presents thrown to poor Space for 50,000 spectators Typical agenda: Animal fights Men and women thrown to the animals Gladiator fights last and most popular Mass combats also held Emperor Claudius (A.D. 52) flooded Colosseum and ordered 19,000 slaves onto ships

Flavian Amphitheater Exterior of the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater), Rome; the Colosseum was built in about A.D. Image source: Royalty-Free/CORBIS, courtesy of McGraw-Hill Higher Education

Flavian Amphitheater Interior of the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater), Rome. The floor of the arena was wood, covered by sand, but it could also be flooded for the reenactment of naval battles. Below the floor of the arena, and visible today, is the Hypogeum, a network of tunnels, rooms, and cages where gladiators and animals were held before contests. Image source: Royalty-Free/CORBIS, courtesy of McGraw-Hill Higher Education

Games and Spectacles Circus Maximus: premier hippodrome in Rome
Chariot races, gladiator combats in front of 250 thousand spectators More Christians were killed in the Circus Maximus than in the Flavian Amphitheater Graphic from sample Instructor Resource CD (McGraw-Hill publisher) sent to me as an example (author: Angela Lumpkin)

Chariot Races Sketch of a Roman Chariot Race from the novel Ben Hur.
Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Games and Spectacles: Gladiators
Mostly criminals and slaves trained to fight Utilitarian approach of pacifying the people System dealt with “criminals,” political enemies Some free men volunteered: auctorati Graphic from sample Instructor Resource CD (McGraw-Hill publisher) sent to me as an example (author: Angela Lumpkin)

Gladiators Four major classes: Thracian, Samnite, Retiarius, Murmillo
Dressed as Roman enemies who fought to the death Most popular events in the amphitheater

Gladiators Took an oath to be “burnt with fire, shackled with chains, whipped with rods, and killed with steel” (p. 87) Pompeii: best-preserved gladiator training schools Graphic from Angela Lumpkin’s sample Instructor Resource CD (McGraw-Hill publisher) sent to me as an example.

Sport and Christianity
Christianity’s growth profoundly impacted sport Roman “sport” was condemned by Christians writers Christians were often victims of the spectacles Christians urged to avoid sport and games—but they did attend and gamble on events Extent of Christian participation in sport and games is debated

Sport and Christianity
Christian Empire adopted popular chariot racing from the Romans Greek athletic festivals and Roman spectacles ended with destruction of Rome in 410 A.D.

Greek Reaction to Roman Sport
Many Greeks opposed the introduction of Roman sport Gladiatorial contests were staged in Greece by first century A.D. Some emperors liked the Olympic Games and spent money to restore Greek athletic venues like Olympia

SECTION II From the Spiritual World to the Secular World: Changing Concepts of the Body Mechikoff & Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Philosophy, Sport, and Physical Education During the Middle Ages: 900-1400
Chapter 5

General History Dark Ages: Middle Ages (or Medieval Period)
After fall of Rome (476 A.D.) until 900 A.D. Middle Ages (or Medieval Period) From 900 A.D. to beginning of Italian Renaissance (14th century) Views of sport Ranged from athletic feats of knights, to sport in preparation for crusades, to ascetic views of monks

Dark Ages Collapse of Rome and the beginning of the Dark Ages caused utter chaos Many people fled cities to seek protection from powerful aristocrats Commerce, trade, and public administration developed by Rome essentially vanished during the Dark Ages

Dark Ages Dark Ages civilization regressed into kingdoms
Similar to tribal societies Europe became feudalistic Castles and walled cities designed by desperate people for protection

Impact of Christianity
Judaism and Islam profoundly impacted Europe Not to the extent of Christianity Christian church—only institution left intact after the fall of the Roman Empire Provided a symbol of stability and order amidst fear Christianity spread throughout the ruins of the Roman Empire

Christian Church Interior of the Chapel Royal of St. John the Evangelist, located in the White Tower, London. It dates from about 1080 and is the oldest church in London. The Christian Church was the only remaining cultural institution after the collapse of Rome. Image source: Royalty-Free/CORBIS, courtesy of McGraw-Hill Higher Education

Impact of Christianity
Theology of the church: Epistemology: based on absolute faith and belief in the certainty of the divine revelation Divine revelation: God directly reveals truth through prayer and scripture The promise of heaven to all who followed its teachings Looked good to people of Dark and Middle Ages

Christianity and Greek Philosophy
Medieval philosophers didn’t have access to many literary sources Greek works, especially Plato and Aristotle Plato and Aristotle interested in similar metaphysical questions as Christianity: Existence of soul Personification and belief in God Nature of being, system of ethics

Not all Christians were eager to embrace the merging of Christianity with Greek philosophy Tertullian: demanded bodily mortification Opposed recognizing the pagan Greek philosophy He and his followers were in the minority Platonism: endorsed by Christian thinkers as intellectual preparation for Christianity

Christian theologians Attempted to “wed” philosophy with theology Developed philosophical proofs to support theological beliefs Scholastics: Augustine, Anselm, Aquinas, etc. Philosophy and theology have different starting points Philosophy is based on reasoned inquiry Theology is based on faith

Philosophical positions of the body
Biblical Jesus: perfection in body, mind, and soul Philosophical positions of the body emerged from theology God created universe, men/women, mind/body Implied the body and the soul were good Metaphysics/ontology became confused during medieval debates Debate over nature of Jesus’ body contributed to splitting of Christianity

Philosophical Positions of the Body
Orthodox: rejected idea that body was evil Christian concept of the body Merging of Eastern Orthodox theology and Greek philosophy Bubonic plague: devastated Europe (fourteenth century) Millions died Church: plague was a sign from God Body was “Messenger of Death”

Philosophical Positions of the Body
Plague tended to change Medieval view of the body “Scholastics” would disagree with this position

Philosophical Positions of the Body: Middle Ages
Ontology became confused Ascetic dualism: blended Platonic philosophy, Christian history, and other religious thought Sought to purify the soul Denied all pleasure Eastern Orthodox church formed an ascetic order—monks Scholastics: saw close relationship between the mind and the body

Thomas Aquinas St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)
Embraced physical fitness and recreation as positive for promoting social and moral well-being Said that intelligence depends in part on the physical fitness level of the individual Believed that we can know things through our bodies as well as through our mind Thought the mind was superior to the body

Thomas Aquinas Agreed with Aristotle
Man is an integral composite of body and soul Soul needs a body to acquire knowledge. Scholastics: were among the first to establish philosophical and religious justification for the body Valued physical fitness and recreation for physical, mental, social, moral well-being God is omnipresent and therefore in the body Did not believe that body was a “messenger of death”

Maimonides, St. Bonaventure
Maimonides: Jewish physician “Nothing is more useful for the preservation of health than physical exercise" St. Bonaventure: Scholastic Body does not imprison the soul Is a friend and companion Individual exists as union of body and soul

Holidays and Ball Games
Peasant (serf) life was particularly difficult Owned home but worked land as rent for protection Recreation: only on Sunday after church Serfs participated in games and amusements Major holidays considered pagan Extended over several days Filled with foods, entertainment, and games Often degenerated into drunken free-for-alls

Games of the Middle Ages
Ball games tended to be rough and lax on rules Soule: resembled soccer and played by peasants Played between two “goals” Goals could be anything Many versions as local customs governed rules

Games of the Middle Ages
Some early versions of hockey and baseball, bowling (kegels) Horse racing English football: gained popularity in London

Medieval Social Structure
Hierarchy of aristocrats emerged Feudal relationships based on military allegiance to a local monarch (for protection) Monarchs often had bodyguards (lord/vassal) Bodyguards given land: lords taxed/protected serfs Wealth came from property ownership

Medieval Social Structure
Leisure became unique to nobles (monarch/lord) Social mobility became very restricted as the era progressed

Aristocratic Sport Based largely on war games
Tournament (joust): most famous of period—gala affairs that were social and recreational Medieval tournament: celebration of social order Evolved from free-for-all into ordered events Joust: mounted horsemen try to knock each other off Melee: groups of knights in hand-to-hand combat Condemned by church initially; knightly sports were accepted during era of Crusades

Knightly Sport Knights and horse from stained glass program at Sainte-Chapelle, Paris. Due to the expense of armor, weapons, and horses, the warrior class was restricted to the wealthy nobility. Image source: Royalty-Free/CORBIS, courtesy of McGraw-Hill Higher Education

Knightly Sport Knight’s armor
Image source: Royalty-Free/CORBIS; courtesy of McGraw-Hill Higher Education

Medieval Concepts of Health
Galen—furthered the work of Hippocrates Furthered knowledge of anatomy and physiology Dissected animals and occasionally humans Believed “humor theory” of health Body composed of four humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile Health involved a balance of these humors

Medieval Concepts of Health
Humor theory (cont.) Humors explained life stages, personality, moods, and disease Phlebotomy (bloodletting): common treatment Herbs, minerals, and animal materials also used to treat humoral imbalance Christians employed religious rituals as disease treatment Prayed to saints to intervene, amulets, incantations

The Renaissance and the Reformation: 1300-1600
Chapter 6 Mechikoff /Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Renaissance and Reformation
Had a significant impact upon the church Significant for how the body was viewed Renaissance reintroduced Greek and Roman thought to intellectual elite Church had to compete with philosophies, literature, and paganism of ancient world

Renaissance and Reformation
The Reformation: an effort to reform the church Church had become a political as opposed to a religious institution Popes sought personal gain—not spiritual perfection

Renaissance/Reformation: Impact
The Renaissance was an intellectual reawakening Idealism of the Classics Concept of the Universal man The Reformation was a religious reawakening Renaissance and Reformation were very threatening to the church Church told people what to think in past Renaissance and Reformation would change this

Reformation Henry VIII Fought wars for popes, went unrecognized
Married several times Wanted divorce that pope would not grant Formed the Anglican church after renouncing Catholicism

Reformation Beginning of Protestant religion
Protestants different from Catholics Reformation resulted in “protest” against Catholic church Became Protestant movement Creation of Protestant religious beliefs Did not recognize supreme authority of Pope

Renaissance, Reformation, and Views of the Body
Different theories/beliefs about the body emerged Different attitudes about sport and physical education developed Plato and Aristotle had a profound impact during the Renaissance

Humanists Placed focus on secular concerns and humans
As opposed to “other worldly” concerns Ancient Greeks believed that body played an important role in human existence Appealed to Renaissance way of thinking The Renaissance Man: “One who uses the mind and body—the well-rounded individual”

Renaissance, Reformation, and Views of the Body
Scholars and leaders of both viewed body as more important than during Middle Ages Humanistic philosophy Reformation thought Religious reformers argued that body housed the soul “temple of the Holy Spirit”

Cultural Changes—The Renaissance
Rebirth/revival of the classics Europeans described writings of ancient Greeks and Romans as “The Classics” Secular-humanistic influence on thought and culture Development of nations (apart from Church)

The Renaissance Marble statue of David by Michelangelo,
Florence, Italy. The sculpture portrays David as a muscular, Classical hero. Marble statue of David by Michelangelo (Florence, Italy) Image source: Royalty-Free/CORBIS, courtesy of McGraw-Hill Higher Education

Philosophers and Educators of the Renaissance
Petrus Paulus Vergerius ( ) One of first great Italian Humanistis Set forth basic ideas of humanist education Education a matter of public interest Should create good citizens of the state Purpose of physical education is to prepare for military; physical education is part of the education of the total individual

Vittorino da Feltre ( ) Most famous Italian Humanist Blended Christianity with the classics and Greek concepts of physical education Believed in mind/body and Christian education Developed health of his students through mandatory participation in physical activity—2 hours daily Devout Christian and humanist Influenced by Plato

Aeneas Silvio Piccolomini ( ) Physical training for lifelong well-being Emphasize skills for military proficiency Baldassare Castiglione ( ) Wrote The Courtier to teach young aristocrats how to behavior at court Emphasis on well-rounded courtier

Reformation Advanced by writings of Erasmus, though Erasmus himself did not support the “extreme” views of Luther Erasmus criticized church as too political Promoted idea that people could interpret the Bible on their own Became rebellion/protest against the political, religious, and intellectual suppression by the Catholic church

Reformation Wanted to return to true meaning of Christianity
Church of England, Lutherans, Calvinists believed they were “closer” to scriptural truth than Catholics

Philosopher and Educators of the Reformation
William of Ockham ( ) Did not like religious intellectual arguments of Middle Ages and scholastics Developed own system of thought Ockham’s razor: simplest answer to any question is probably the correct one Attacked the intellectual and Christian foundations of the period

Reformation Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1517)
Key Humanist but also played a role in the Reformation in northern Europe Used humanistic scholarship and literature to criticize Catholic Church Advocated a program of education that did not include physical education

Philosopher and Educators of the Reformation
Martin Luther ( ) Indulgences were wrong: Salvation is by faith Catholic church is the not the “middle man” Each person is responsible for self / own salvation Paved way for much of democratic thought and thoughts on universal education Luther advocated education for everyone Religious education was most important

Reformation: Luther Believed music, games, dancing were acceptable pastimes Not evil in themselves Practiced monastic lifestyle for a while Eventually rejected Individuals have an obligation to take care of their body for spiritual and health reasons Allowed them to be hard workers Differed from the general medieval view of denying the body to obtain spiritual purity

Reformation: Luther Statue of Martin Luther in Worms
Image source: Emma Lee/Life File/Getty Images

Reformation John Calvin (1509-1564)
Rejected humanist ideas and focus on this world Returned thoughts back to the next world (heaven) Theology: Predestination and Divine election God in his sovereignty chooses some, not others Lifestyle tended to show where one stood Those focused on God spent more time at work and prayer than sport and games

Reformation: John Calvin
Time: cyclical view before Reformation Calvin argued for linear view Each minute, hour, day is “God given” and must be productive Play and sport were not seen as productive Physical education Calvin’s beliefs impeded development of sport and physical education

Reformation: Calvin Portrait of John Calvin

The Age of Science and the Enlightenment: 1560-1789
Chapter 7 Mechikoff /Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introduction Renaissance, Reformation ideas materialized
Individual rights Focus on this world Secularization Metaphysical view of the western world changes Material world becomes more real Allows for rise of science Ideal, spiritual world less important Church is challenged

The Age of Science Some people retained devotion to church and shunned scientific discoveries But focus changed for many people Comfort in both the spiritual and the secular For those with a secular orientation, emphasis is on making this existence the best it can be Medicine, science, and technology improve Tools of science develop to expand our observational powers Microscopes, telescopes, etc., allow observation of material world

The Age of Science Science splits from philosophy: becomes separate discipline Breakdown of deductive types of reasoning to inductive Especially evident in rise of science (inductive method)

The Age of Science: Politics
Common man becomes main theme of politics Politics less concerned with religion, more concerned with the lives of people No longer the rights of kings, religion, or the state, but all people are citizens Education becomes a right rather than a privilege Beginning of idea that all citizens must be educated Common person much more well read than in previous centuries

The Age of Science: Sport
Play becomes more justifiable and legitimate because of the focus on our material lives. Also the focus on this world rather than next Time is important: arguments for physical education and sport during this era still used today Philosophers came to accept material world and the place our bodies occupy in it

Historical Highlights
Economic depression in the 17th century Trade dropped off, unemployment increased Many religious wars occurred Germany, England, and France (16th and 17th centuries) Tension often over old and new ideas of government Reemergence of plague England and France in the 17th century “Little Ice Age”

History and Philosophy
Philosophies reflect these historical conditions Major philosophers of the Age of Science and the Enlightenment Jean-Jacques Rousseau, author of Emile Francoise Voltaire, Philosophie Jacques Diderot, Encyclopedist

Philosophers of Science
Galileo Galilei ( ) Italian astronomer and physicist Made famous the Copernican view of the universe: sun at center of the solar system Replaced Ptolemaic view (earth at the center) Social impact of this theory Humanity no longer the center of the universe Considered insignificant relative to the cosmos

Church felt threatened by Galileo’s ideas Thought that Bible confirmed earth as center Galileo asked to recant belief, sentenced to prison Does this view undermine the bible/Church?

Philosophers of Science: Galileo
Photo of painting of Galileo Galilei by Giusto Sustermans Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Francis Bacon ( ) Contributor to the philosophy of science Chancellor in England: ruled in absence of king Argued for science to improve welfare of people Attempted to classify types of science and what areas of knowledge each type could examine Similar to the division of kinesiology into the subdisciplines

Isaac Newton English mathematician and physicist Mechanical theory argued God created universe as a perfect machine Physicists had to discover laws that govern the machine Newton’s (3) “Laws of Motion”: 1. Body continues in rest unless compelled to change… 2. Change of motion proportional to force and direction… 3. To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction

René Descartes ( ) Epitomized dualistic approach of mind and body Argued that knowledge can be created from simple ideas and developed into more complex ideas Knowledge is not valid unless absolutely certain of its authenticity “Building block theory of knowledge” Complex theories rest on simpler, previous theories

Philosophers of Science: Descartes
René Descartes, engraving by W. Holl after painting by Franz Hals Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Argued that only “true” knowledge is intellectual Cannot trust our body or our senses Implies that body is less important than mind as a way of knowing Being can’t be reduced to matter and mechanics Soul transcends material world

“cogito ergo sum”– I think, therefore I am Intended to show that being was an act of mind God was the ultimate source of thought Ended up placing humans in a place of importance

Thomas Hobbes ( ) Applied Newton to the nature of being Reality is bodies and motion Removed God from philosophy, not from religion Religious critics branded Hobbes a heretic Humans are purely material: the body (monistic) Not concerned with souls or minds because these cannot be observed or measured and so cannot be proven to exist Humans are the sum of their physical parts Deterministic—all human thoughts and actions are determined by past actions and environment and not by free will

The Age of Science: Education
Common Views Human body is natural and important Realism: radical shift from Middle Ages and Renaissance Focus became on the reality of here and now Realists advocated study of “real” things of life Not just the classics and the Bible

The Age of Science: Education
Realists (cont.) Humanist realists: Latin, Greek, classics were basis of curriculum physical education added Social realists: added social graces and politics Sense realists: most radically different Students should be taught in their own language Should learn useful arts and sciences that are based on scientifically sound principles

The Educators Michel de Montaigne (1553-1592)
Strongly influenced by the humanist movement Argued for the well rounded individual Monist: argued that mind tightly joined to body Both important for knowing reality Disagreed with “soft” lifestyle many humanists promoted Advocated “manly exercises”

The Educators: Montaigne
Advocated physical training/education Child experienced rougher life in the outdoors “It is not enough to fortify his soul; you must also make his muscles strong... It is not the mind, it is not the body we are training; it is the man and we must not divide him into two parts” Wanted to develop virtuous and strong citizens of the upper classes

The Educators John Locke (1632-1704): Social realist
Influenced American writers of Constitution Believed mind was a tabula rasa (blank slate) Senses act on mind to train all aspects of a person Body is important for human development Intellectual pursuits are more important (dualist) Argued for the health of the student Proper diet and exercise “A sound mind in a sound body”

John Locke Portrait of John Locke, lithograph after H. Garnier

The Educators Richard Mulcaster (1530-1611): Sense realist
English schoolmaster All people should have an education Experience (body and senses) more important than studying or reading Wrote education book on physical education Recommended outdoor activities in education One of first to argue for sport in schools

The Philosophes Bourgeoisie: well-educated middle class that emerged during era Philosophes: writers within this class Advocated reason, science, education to build a stable and free society Concerned with solutions to social problems

The Philosophes Four common principles: Had implications for education
Man is not depraved End of life is life itself and not life after death Man is capable of perfecting good life here on earth First condition of good life is freedom from ignorance and superstition Had implications for education

The Philosophes and Physical Education
Jean-Jacques Rousseau Each person should be educated for citizenship Education determined the individual and their relationship to society Nature (not tradition) determines education Individuals were essentially good Mind and body work in harmony, but mind directs Developing the body is necessary before developing the mind

Johann Bernhard Basedow More of an educator than most philosophes Modeled his school after Rousseau’s ideas Emphasized use of senses with nature as guide Half the day spent in physical activities Johann Simon: developed physical activities at the school One of first “modern” physical educators

Johann Friedrich GutsMuths Furthered the quality of the physical education profession Established physical education teaching standards Wrote influential texts Over 50 years of service in teaching

Enlightenment and Physical Education
Arguments for physical activity and education became more substantial and widely accepted Physical education and sport remained a part of Western civilization Arguments of the scientists, philosophers, and educators grew and developed

Philosophical Positions of the Body and the Development of Physical Education

Introduction Discuss parameters of idealism
Show impact of idealism on body and physical education Historical role of education during 18th century, including rise of physical education

Idealism Traced back to work of Socrates and Plato
Has “competed” with naturalism since antiquity Naturalism—all events share same character Can be explained as a process inherent in nature Idealism and its view of the body are very significant to physical education

Idealism Idealists focus on three specific topics:
The existence of God The self Knowledge Three components of idealism make up the fabric of metaphysical inquiry God, self, and the question, “how do I come to know?” Components are not limited to idealism, but form the basis for all philosophy

Idealism Idealists believe that entire universe is that which can be conceived or imagined by the mind What the mind or spirit experiences and perceives as real is essential and authentic The world of material objects is secondary to the “reality” conceived by the mind The actual world is imperfect Our mind is able to conceive of a perfect world, which also must exist and is real

Idealism Use of logic is essential to make idealism work
Example: Reality is mind All ideas are conceived by the mind Anything conceived by mind in all probability exists Therefore, any idea conceived by mind exists The mind is composed of a spiritual quality Ultimate reality is beyond sensory and material world Two different philosophical views in idealism: Metaphysical and epistemological

Metaphysical Idealism
Analyzes universe as a psychic or mental reality All “things” that exist in the universe are linked by an ideal element (logically deduced) Plato, St. Augustine, and even Aristotle believed in metaphysical idealism Facts or evidence are obtained through deductive and subjective logic Skeptics of metaphysical idealism will argue against this subjective logic later

Epistemological Idealism
Approaches the study and actual “identification” of reality with mentally knowable data which are perceptible truths Despite what might be “out there” beyond our mind, all we can know is what is in our minds

Idealism and the Self Refer back to Descartes to prove “self”
Descartes argued that the ability to doubt is a direct route to discovering the self “I think, therefore I am” Descartes arrived at self through process of doubt Descartes’ “self” was mindful activity Confirming the logic of idealism that reality is mind

Idealism and Knowledge
Understanding nature of knowledge will clarify reality Ideals must be derived from logical evidence Sensory experiences must be interpreted and validated as authentic or unreliable Truth is orderly and systematic Test for truth: its coherence with knowledge that has been previously established Individual attains truth by examining the wisdom of the past through his own mind

Idealism and Knowledge
Everything that exists has a relationship to something else that exists Reality is a system of logic and order established by the universal mind

German Idealists Idealist believes that world and universe are primarily spiritual Part of the “perfect world” Humans are composed of more than the corporeal They have a soul that is a link to spiritual reality Ultimate reality to an idealist is spiritual

German Idealists George Berkeley
World has meaning because our minds are able to discern it Experience allows us, through the mind, to extract meaning from our existence, Something must exist that actually provides the elements of quality and meaning This Something is the Universal Mind, or God German idealists did not always base their belief in ultimate ideals with a traditional belief in God

German Idealists Immanuel Kant Complex philosophy
Published first major book at age 57—Critique of Pure Reason Theory of knowledge: Conscious reason is the catalyst for all of our experience It is our conscious experience (mind) that provides unity and order

German Idealists: Kant
The world is represented to us by our physical senses and sensory input Sensations are chaotic and, therefore, unrelated These sensations we perceive are caused by “something out there” Mind and conscious thought describes and orders sensations into perceptible components of space and time

Driving question: Can metaphysics exist as a science? Seems we come to know science and metaphysics in similar ways We link and unify sensory input by categorizing them through mindful activity (consciousness) We catalog these as reliable or unreliable

Knowledge and reason are interactive process Originate in mind and are directed towards the world Must “reason” through issues and questions “Thing in Itself”: defies our knowledge Can never be known (infinite) Humans are finite Not able to comprehend or understand the infinite

Kant bases his belief in God on moral grounds, not supernatural existence Kant’s five beliefs Categorical imperative of Kant and physical education-sport Sportsmanship and moral conduct in sport Teach humanistic qualities espoused by Kant

Johan Fichte Concentrated on ethical writings that challenged humans
Believed that the phenomenal world we live in was designed to nurture and develop the “will” and develop character Believed, unlike Kant, that the “thing in itself” was knowable Evil is necessary: Catalyst for awakening the human spirit and spurring it to achievement

Johan Fichte Human spirit would never achieve without the presence of evil Human spirit and physical education: “Health of the body is essential to vigor of the mind and spirit development of the ‘self’” Idealism—big association between mind, body, and spirit

Georg Hegel Consummate idealist
Reason can fathom all aspects of human experience Epistemology = Thesis  antithesis  synthesis Profound influence on Karl Marx Places corporeal world as a limited or finite idea Ultimate realities are within the realm of man’s reason Body is inferior to mind and spirit Assigned greater value to the ability to “know things” than Kant and other Idealists

Georg Hegel Portrait of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Idealism, Sport, and Physical Education
Idealism demands healthy and fit body for each person to reach full potential Mind would be at a disadvantage without a healthy and fit body To develop the self includes development of the body Idealism supports the inclusion of physical education

Idealism allows answer to “what is good” “What is good” in education involves training toward moral ideals, not necessarily subject content Physical education should include moral training as well as physical The “moral imperative” applies to all aspects of sport and physical education Moral imperative opposes Exploitation of athletes Low graduation rates

Achieving a superior life is the objective Physical, intellectual, spiritual, and moral growth are desired Students are to be evaluated not just by objectives tests but also subjectively—in terms of their “behavior, citizenship, and sociomoral conduct”

The Educators Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827)
Theory of education: intellectual, moral, and practical Practical education involved gymnastics and games as well as physical labor Gave an important impetus to physical education as a school subject Educational reforms would further physical education

Freidrich Froebel (1782-1852) Learned under a student of Pestalozzi’s
Believed in play as fundamental to growth and development Theory of play supported physical education “Play is the highest form of child development” Observation, discovery, and creativity were necessary for developing skills

Friedrich Jahn German nationalist who sought freedom from Napoleonic rule Established secret society (German League) Devoted to “spiritual renovation of Germany” Called for nationwide physical education in all universities Gymnastics teacher Established turnen exercises and turnverein movement Physical exercises as training to liberate Germany

Friedrich Jahn Friedrich Ludwig Jahn

Jahn and Gymnastics Gymnastic events to spread nationalism
Jahn and Turners served in the wars of liberation from Became underground movement after Germany won independence from France Government suppressed movement Three of Jahn’s students left for America Provided basis for American physical education

Charles Follen Lawyer, political subversive in Germany
Fled to the U.S. in 1824 Hired at Harvard to teach German Developed turnplatz at Harvard and at the Boston Gymnasium Francis Lieber (also Jahn follower) replaced him in 1827

Charles Beck Classics scholar and theologian, followed Jahn
Sailed to U.S., taught at the Round Hill School Round Hill: founded by Germans First school to require mandatory physical education in the form of German gymnastics Beck is credited with being first physical education teacher in America

Charles Beck’s Work Vaulting the horse, from the work of F. L. Jahn
Image source: Charles Beck, A Treatise on Gymnastiks, 1828

Franz Nachtegall Father of physical education in Denmark
Read GutsMuths and began to tutor students Promoted gymnastics in all Danish schools Achieved some success training teachers Program was largely taken over by military teachers and military gymnastics

Per Henrik Ling Originator of “Swedish” gymnastics
Fundamental principles Harmonious development of the body Biological, physiological exercises Exercises were developmental, corrective, and aesthetic Progressive difficulty and rigor

Ling’s Gymnastics Grounded exercise in medical and scientific knowledge of the day Never caught on like Jahn’s system Some success in Northeast United States

The Impact of Science and the Concept of Health on the Theoretical and Professional Development of Physical Education, Chapter 9 Mechikoff & Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

19th Century and Health Health and fitness were fashionable
Major concern of Americans and Europeans Popular topic in books, lectures, articles Endless variety of health enhancement techniques Health promotion and wellness were major components in 19th century physical education

19th Century and Health Health was concern to Americans as disease was prevalent Influenza outbreak (1917), cholera, smallpox, measles

Medicine in 19th Century State of medical knowledge ineffective
Status of physicians in 19th century Not recognized as exclusive guardians of health Absence of educational standards growing anti-elitist feeling undermined occupational professions

Medicine and 19th Century
New scientific ideas – cell, germ theories Health reform Popular interest in health and scientific discoveries Alternative medical theories and treatments emerged Vegetarianism, electropathy, homeopathy Thomasonianism: be your own M.D.

Emergence of biology Biology was premier science of period
Three general concepts: form, function, and transformation Charles Darwin: Scientific method and scientific discoveries reinforced “modern culture” Evolution Organic development grounded in science Physical education viewed as developing individuals

Social Change in 19th Century America
Period of radical change in American society Emergence of a middle class Bureaucratic society of specialization, expertise Physical education experienced this change Sought to reflect social ideas of this era Specialists, organizations developed to determine needs and direction of the emerging profession

Social Change in 19th Century
Traditionally unchallenged authority of law, religion, and medicine was gone New disciplines were developed to house the new and evolving bodies of knowledge Colleges and universities became increasingly professional Medicine began to develop subdisciplines Physical education was one of these groups

Physical Education History
November 1885: Experts (mostly M.D.’s) meet to discuss current issues in physical education Battle of the Systems Common interest in physical education American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education (AAAPE) formed Growth of physical education was furthered by Teacher-training institutions Abundant gymnasiums Programs in non-school settings (YMCA)

Early physical education programs used German system, Swedish system or a combination of both Calisthenics developed Catherine Beecher ( ) Dioclesian Lewis ( )

Physical Education History: Beecher and Lewis
Catherine Beecher and Dioclesian Lewis incorporated unique exercises not associated with “traditional” gymnastics devoted efforts to promote women’s health Beecher’s calisthenics: 26 lessons in physiology, two courses in calisthenics Used light exercises Wanted students to develop beautiful, strong bodies Corrective focus

Female student exercising with pulleys, Western High School (ca. 1890s)

Theoretical Basis of Physical Education
1885: American Association of Physical Education formed from AAAPE Developed theoretical basis for physical education Tested and untested assumptions that were used to explain physical activity Many ideas and positions emerged Cultural values, especially of middle class, played an important part

Theoretical basis emerged in middle 19th century Physical education good for individual and community Three distinct periods in theory development:

Theory Development in Physical Education
Characterized by 19th-century beliefs Health as balance between mind, body, spirit Changing concept of health Individuals desired self-improvement Science was provider of truth tools of science were the method Growth of anthropometry

Transitional period Major debates regarding appropriate methods and goals of physical education Began to accommodate sport as part of theory

Accepted psychological and behavioral principles into theoretical foundation Used popular beliefs about exercise to influence public

Biological and Philosophical Issues
Science perpetuated idea of materialism Whole as the sum of its parts Society viewed as “social organism” Individual a “cell” in the “body” Charles Darwin’s work influenced this view Psychology shifted focus from study of mind to study of behavior Sought to determine how mind and body were related Studied the “will” (James) and “character” (Carpenter)

Biological and Philosophical Issues
Two rationales for P.E. in late 19th Century Mind is a product of biology Character can be acquires through the will Science began to challenge epistemology of dualism Two separate, equal parts or one interrelated whole?

Biological and Philosophical Issues: Evolution
Combined with other sciences (physiology) to justify physical education Exercise thought to improve the species Crucial to normal evolutionary development Could also help with nervous disorders Neurasthenia Gravis Built brain power and “cerebral mass”

Women: Mothers of the Race
Health particularly important for women Progenitors of life Exercise should be tailored to their “special” physiology Victorian attitudes imposed on types of activity & dress

Women and Sport Western High School Girl’s Basketball (ca. 1890s)
Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Women and Sport Western High School Girl’s Class with Dumbbells (ca. 1890s) Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Women, Higher Education, P.E.
Growth of higher education for women in post-Civil War years Nervous system received much attention American women thought to have increased number of nervous disorders Women have been generally overlooked regarding contributions to P.E. Delphine Hanna: first full professor of P.E.

Golden Age of Anthropometry: 1885-1900
Anthropometry: new academic area Involved measurement of body segments, girths, lengths Used by many disciplines to disprove theories on human nature Members of different classes, races Particularly suited for P.E. research Sought to legitimize P.E. through quantification

Golden Age of Anthropometry: 1885-1900
Dudley Sargent: used studies to promote human improvement through exercise Anthropometry: cutting edge of P.E. research Dudley Sargent Edward Hitchcock

Dudley Sargent

Defining Scope of the Discipline
P.E. used scientific evidence to support exercise as good for society Attempted to gain acceptance of both society and science Paradigm problems emerged Lack of body of research Some scientists left profession Anthropometry dominated through 1890s

Contributions of German Gymnastics
Primary pedagogical emphasis in schools was gymnastics German gymnastics popular Mass number of German immigrants contributed to several Turner societies Began programs in East and Midwest 1860: Dio Lewis introduced system in Boston Swedish system introduced at Johns Hopkins

Physical Education the American Way
1889: Boston conference to develop “American” version of gymnastics Discussed strengths of each system Baron Pierre de Coubertin in attendance Discussed what methods to use in American school system

Changing Concepts & a Changing Profession
Health as balance of mind, body, will was challenged by emerging theory Germ theory undermined Faith in medicine’s ability to promote and sustain health Focus on growth of professions (science, medicine) affected education, P.E. Career opportunities in P.E. increased

Professional Preparation of Teachers
Debates over training of P.E. teachers Between AAAPE administrators and school teachers Primary training in medicine or education? Normal school facilitated training for teachers 1887: YMCA International Training School 1891: First graduate coursework Physiological psychology, history/philosophy, anthropometry, literature of physical education

Dudley Sargent: Harvard Summer School of Physical Education opened in 1887 1866: California passed law requiring P.E. in schools To promote health and vigor Provide means for military defense Other states followed throughout 1890s

Four-year programs: Stanford, Harvard, U. of California, Nebraska, Oberlin, Columbia U., U. of Wisconsin Began to place departments in education Emergence of state legislation Need to train physical educators 1921: Compulsory P.E. in 28 states 1930: teaching certification required in 38 states

P.E. leaders continued to debate what constituted a trained physical educator Struggle to attract competent recruits Perception that teachers taught only play and not sciences Tremendous need for teachers allowed minimum training Factors led to feelings of professional inadequacy

The Transformation of Physical Education: 1900-1939

Physical Education: 20th Century Reform
Social development objectives Adoption of sports by physical education The development of play theory

19th Century Physical Education
Early physical educators focused on health Backgrounds were doctors and educators Coursework in hygiene, physiology, and instruction in fitness activities Activities included gymnastics and calisthenics

20th Century General Education
Physical education: valued part of curriculum Social development objectives emphasized Transformation: began with “athletics are educational” movement ( ) Concluded with “sports for all” ( ) Traditional health and fitness objectives subjugated to social development objectives Result of external forces more than philosophical reorientation

External Forces Physical educators capitalized on sports
Reformed philosophy in to accommodate sports Determined effort by APEA Put athletics into education, education into athletics Athletic competition and intramural sports challenged gymnastics and calisthenics By 1930: most instructional activities devoted to sports and intramural programs

Harvard-Princeton Football Game, 1913
Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. Harvard-Princeton Football Game, 1913

Physical Education and Athletic Changes
Before 1906 physical education taught by faculty Athletics governed by athletic associations Controlled by students and alumni No national governing body to oversee athletics Abuses caused faculty intervention High school: control achieved by merging athletics and physical education Athletic directors and coaches hired

Physical Education and Coaching
Teaching done by coaches Shift away from health focus Teachers trained by educators, not health experts Most physical educators women Men preferred coaching : no coursework offered in coaching 1919: George Huff developed first degree program in coaching (University of Illinois)

Merging of Athletics and Physical Education
Varsity athletic competition dominates physical education : college presidents assumed responsibility for athletic programs : “Sports for All” Final stage in transformation of physical education National organizations charged with increasing sports participation

Athletics, Physical Education, and Crisis
Most states passed legislation mandating physical education in schools College physical education departments established rapidly Few physical education professors Coaches became physical educators 1929 survey: 23 had formal training in physical education Most had been successful athletes or coaches

Athletics, Physical Education, and Crisis
Qualified physical educators were concerned with low standards Jesse Feiring Williams Sport and physical education became permanently tied together Educators still argued over emphasis Still confused about their educational missions

Development of Play Theory
Herbert Spencer Play as expending excess energy Karl Groos Humans played as preparation for life Play behavior was instinctual G. Stanley Hall Influential psychologist early 20th century Childhood as rehearsal for the evolution Play is fundamental to development of species

Play Theory Luther Gulick: influential physical educator
Emphasized benefits of play for development of private and social self John Dewey: influential philosopher and educational theorist Believed that mind/body were integrated

Play Theory: Dewey Body produced experiences that shaped individual
Play: important activity in educational process Ultimate goal of Dewey’s system: education for democratic citizenship Dewey and others helped introduce social games and social play as significant Physical education incorporated these ideas into educational programs

Play and Physical Education
Play received support at the city level Playground movement began in large cities 1890s: Chicago, Boston, N.Y. Play theory received growing support Gymnastics, science-based programs preferred by many until 1910s By 1915: Play and sport became focus

Play in Physical Education, 1900–1915
Supporters argued for play over gymnastics Henry Curtis: team games developed group awareness, loyalty, and leadership Luther Gulick Used biological rationale to promote play Sports teach one to survive Sport activities arose because of a need to practice these skills

Summary of Play Developed health and vigor Character
loyalty, sportsmanship, friendliness, leadership Democracy through group cooperation Moral and ethical values Educational because it is “instinctive”

Ball Game on School Playground, 1910
Girl’s Dodge Ball Game on School Playground, 1910 Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. Ball Game on School Playground, 1910

The New Physical Education: 1915–1930
Physical education incorporated new theories of psychology and other sciences Behavioristic and psychosocial objectives/ideas Three individuals especially important: Clark Hetherington Thomas D. Wood Rosalind Cassidy

Clark Hetherington Divided physical education into four areas (1910)
Organic, psychomotor, character, intellect Four areas blended to produce five objectives Physical training Social adjustment Response powers (early motor learning theory) Character development Improve thinking (cognition)

Clark Hetherington Argued for educational and social objectives over health objectives Successfully argued that physical education is essential for education Most physical educators eventually embrace play, games, dance, and sport

Quantification of Physical Education
Measurement of motor ability and physical efficiency Attempts to link physical ability and mental ability Assessment of physical fitness

Sport in Colonial America

Colonial America: Attitudes
Attitudes toward sport representative of settlers European background New England: Puritan Against play generally Mid-Atlantic (New York): Dutch, Quaker Moderate play acceptable South: Catholic, Baptist, and Methodist Most friendly toward play Attitudes were strongly influenced by religion

New England Puritans and Sport: 17th Century
Generally cold toward playful activities All human beings were born “flawed” in the eyes of God Goal was to restrain the “evil” impulses of sinners Play was considered “evil” “idle hands are the devils workshop”

Puritans and Sport The good religious life determined how one should behave Government was formed to insure religious behavior Control of emotions and behaviors was critical Much debate over what was proper behavior Protestant work ethic Hard work: a sign that one was destined for heaven To be seen playing was a sign of moral depravity Overcoming desire to play was a sign of morality

Puritans and Sport Ban on play was recognized to be impossible
Differed from European Puritans What play is acceptable? Play that helped maintain civic order Moderate recreation keeps one refreshed Abstention from recreation created disorder in life Fishing, hunting, and walking acceptable Improved health, renewed spirit

Sabbath and Sport Maintain the Sabbath
Examples of people (John Baker) whipped for hunting Hunting not bad, but failed to keep Sabbath Sabbath laws (“blue laws”) in effect into the 20th century

Amusements in New England
Taverns: American version of English pubs, German beer halls, and European inns Frontier taverns provided amusements, lodging Darts and cards were popular games Marksmanship, boxing, cockfighting, and horseracing were popular Social amusements became more acceptable as Puritan influence eroded

Card games were a popular Colonial pastime
Cards Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. Card games were a popular Colonial pastime (18th century hand-engraved cards)

Sport in the Mid-Atlantic
Quakers of Pennsylvania and Dutch Calvinists in New York: More friendly toward playful activities Horse racing popular from the beginning Improvement of the breed by importing Gamble on outcome Bowling, golf, early croquet, tennis, cricket, shooting matches, sleigh rides

Sport in the South Growth of sports in the south
No Puritans settled here Catholicism was dominant religion Southern gentlemen extremely competitive Rugged individualism and competitiveness manifest in wagering on horses Founding Fathers enjoyed horse racing

Horse Racing First horse races were a quarter mile long
Led to Virginia quarter horse Race tracks in Virginia, Maryland, South Carolina Wagering often heavy, women placed bets Big races followed by social festivities

Sport in the South Social class often dictated appropriate sporting behavior Upper class: requisite social and athletic skills Riding, dancing, fencing, and conversation Slaves participated as jockeys and boxers Some slaves gained freedom by fighting

Sport in South: Boxing Many boxers were slaves, providing entertainment and betting opportunities for whites First well-known American pugilist: Tom Molineaux, who won his freedom from slavery Traveled to England to fight British champion Tom Cribb in 1810—a rainy day match After 29th round, Molineaux was winning Partisan British fans stopped the fight briefly Molineaux caught a chill and was beaten in 40th round

Other Influences on Colonial Sport
Native Americans originated the game of Lacrosse in the Northeast Expert riders: horseracing and tribal dances Had many forms of ball games that non-Indians learned and participated in throughout the country

La Crosse game, played by Native Americans and Whites (lithograph)