1. Module 8
Hypnosis

2. HYPNOSIS Hypnosis definition
procedure in which a researcher, clinician, or hypnotists suggests that a person will experience changes in sensation, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
Who can be hypnotized?
not correlated with introversion, extraversion, social position, intelligence, willpower, sex, compliance, gullibility, being highly motivated, or being a placebo responder

3. HYPNOSIS (CONT.) Who is susceptible?
individuals with the remarkable ability to respond to imaginative suggestions
best known test: Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale
asks individuals to carry out a series of both simple and complex suggestions
high scorers are usually easily hypnotized

4. HYPNOSIS (CONT.) How is someone hypnotized? hypnotic induction
refers to inducing hypnosis by first asking a person to either stare at an object or close his or her eyes and then suggesting that the person is becoming very relaxed

5. HYPNOSIS (CONT.) Theories of hypnosis
Altered States Theory of Hypnosis
holds that hypnosis puts a person into an altered state of consciousness, during which the person is disconnected from reality, which results in being able to experience and respond to various suggestions
Sociocognitive Theory of hypnosis
behaviors observed during hypnosis result not from being hypnotized, but rather from having the special ability of responding to imaginative suggestions and social pressures

6. HYPNOSIS (CONT.) Behaviors Hypnotic analgesia
refers to a reduction in pain reported by clients after they had undergone hypnosis and received suggestions that reduced their anxiety and promoted relaxation
Posthypnotic suggestion
given to the subject during hypnosis about performing a particular behavior to a specific cue when the subject comes out of hypnosis

7. HYPNOSIS (CONT.) Behaviors Posthypnotic amnesia
not remembering what happened during hypnosis if the hypnotist suggested that, upon awakening, the person would forget what took place during hypnosis
Age regression
refers to subjects under hypnosis being asked to regress, or return in time, to an earlier age, such as early childhood
Imagined perception
refers to experiencing sensations, perceiving stimuli, or performing behaviors that come from one’s imagination

8. HYPNOSIS (CONT.) Medical and therapeutic applications
Medical and dental use
used to reduce pain through hypnotic analgesia, to reduce fear and anxiety by helping individuals relax, or to help patients deal with a terminal disease by motivating them to make the best of a difficult situation
Therapeutic and behavioral uses
useful in helping clients reveal their personalities, gain insights into their lives, and arrive at solutions to their problems

9. DRUGS: OVERVIEW Reasons for use
include obtaining pleasure, joy, and euphoria; meeting social expectations; giving in to peer pressure; dealing with or escaping stress, anxiety, and tension; avoiding pain; and achieving altered state of consciousness
Psychoactive drugs
affect nervous system
may alter consciousness and awareness, influence how we sense and perceive things, and modify our moods, feelings, emotions, and thoughts

10. DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT.)
Definition of terms
Addiction
a person has developed a behavioral pattern of drug abuse that is marked by an overwhelming and compulsive desire to obtain and use the drug; even after stopping, the person has a strong tendency to relapse and begin using the drug again
Tolerance
after a person uses a drug repeatedly over a period of time, the original dose of the drug no longer produces the desired effect so that a person must take increasingly larger doses of the drug to achieve the same behavioral effect

11. DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT.)
Definition of terms
Dependency
refers to a change in the nervous system so that a person now needs to take the drug to prevent the occurrence of painful withdrawal symptoms
Withdrawal symptoms
painful physical and psychological symptoms that occur after a drug-dependent person stops using the drug

12. DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT.)
Use of drugs

13. DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT.)
Effects on nervous system
drugs affect neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
chemical keys that search for and then either open or close chemical locks to either excite or inhibit neighboring neurons, organs, or muscles
Mimicking
some drugs produce their effects by mimicking the way the neurotransmitters work
Reuptake
some drugs block reuptake

14. DRUGS: OVERVIEW (CONT.)
Effects on nervous system
drugs affect brain’s reward/pleasure center
includes the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area and involves dopamine
some drugs directly activate the brain’s reward/pleasure center
also activated when one eats food, has sex, and does other pleasurable activities

15. STIMULANTS Definition
stimulants, including cocaine, amphetamines, caffeine, and nicotine, increase activity of the central nervous system and result in heightened alertness, arousal, euphoria, and decreased appetite and fatigue
Amphetamines
1960’s: heavily prescribed to treat a wide range of problems, including fatigue, depression, and being overweight
1971: FDA outlawed the prescription of amphetamines for everything except attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy

16. STIMULANTS (CONT.) Amphetamines 1980’s: drug war on cocaine
dramatic increase in using a form of amphetamine called methamphetamine
in many countries, possession or use of methamphetamine is illegal

17. STIMULANTS (CONT.) Amphetamines drug
Methamphetamine (D-methamphetamine)
close to amphetamine in both chemical makeup and its physical and psychological effects
can be smoked, or snorted
produces almost instant high
causes marked increase in blood pressure and heart rate
produces feelings of enhanced mood, alertness, and energy

18. STIMULANTS (CONT.) Amphetamines nervous system
increases the release of dopamine and also blocks reuptake
Dangers
periods of restless activity and performing repetitive behaviors
later, euphoria is replaced with depression, agitation insomnia, and development of true paranoid feelings

19. STIMULANTS (CONT.) Cocaine drug from coca leaves
cocaine can be sniffed or snorted
absorbed by many of the body’s membranes
concentrated cocaine is called crack
effects are very similar to amphetamines
higher doses can produce anxiety, emotional instability, and suspiciousness

20. STIMULANTS (CONT.) Cocaine nervous system blocks reuptake of dopamine
excites dopamine receptors to produce pleasure/euphoria and glutamate to produce cravings for more drug
increased physiological and psychological arousal
can be used for a local anesthetic when applied to external areas of the body

21. STIMULANTS (CONT.) Cocaine Dangers moderate doses
Short acting high (10-30 minutes); includes bursts of energy, arousal, and alertness
Heavy doses
results in serious physical and psychological problems, which may include hallucinations and feelings of bugs crawling under the skin as well as addiction

22. STIMULANTS (CONT.) Caffeine drug
mild stimulant, produces moderate physiological and psychological arousal, including decreased fatigue and drowsiness, feelings of alertness and improved reaction times
Nervous system
caffeine belongs to the chemical class called xanthines
blocks certain receptors (adenosine receptors) in the brain
mild physiological and psychological arousal

23. STIMULANTS (CONT.) Caffeine Dangers
mild to heavy doses of caffeine can result in addiction and dependency similar to those produced by alcohol, nicotine, and cocaine (two cups of coffee)
higher doses result in depression, tension, and anxiety

24. STIMULANTS (CONT.) Nicotine drug
stimulant that triggers the brain’s reward/pleasure center to produce good feelings
low doses improve attention, concentration, and short term memory
regular use causes addiction and dependency
leads to withdrawal

25. STIMULANTS (CONT.) Nicotine nervous system
stimulates the production of dopamine
also stops other controlling cells from turning off the pleasure areas
Dangers
very addicting
causes sexual problems including impotency
withdrawal symptoms range in severity and include nervousness, irritability, difficulty in concentrating, sleep disturbances, and strong craving

26. OPIATES Opium, morphine, heroin opiates are classified as narcotics
drug
opiates such as opium, morphine, and heroin produce three primary effects:
analgesia (pain reduction)
opiate euphoria (state between waking and sleeping)
constipation

27. OPIATES (CONT.) Opium, morphine, heroin nervous system
brain has naturally occurring receptors for opiates
produces feelings of euphoria and analgesia
gastrointestinal tract has opiate receptors (constipation)
brain also produces morphinelike chemicals called endorphins

28. OPIATES (CONT.) Opium, morphine, heroin Dangers
brain will produce less of it’s own endorphins
relies on outside opiates
person becomes addicted
withdrawal symptoms, include hot and cold flashes, sweating, muscle tremors, and stomach cramps
overdose results in depressed neural control for breathing and death from respiratory failure

29. HALLUCINOGENS Definition
Hallucinogens are psychoactive drugs that can produce strange and unusual perceptual, sensory, and cognitive experiences, which the person sees or hears but knows are not occurring in reality.
LSD
d-lysergic acid diethylamide
drug
produces hallucinogenic experiences at very low doses
visual hallucinations, perceptual distortions, increased sensory awareness, and intense psychological feelings

30. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.) LSD nervous system resembles serotonin
LSD binds to receptors that normally respond to serotonin, and the net effect is increased stimulation of the these neurons
receptors are mainly located on neurons in the cerebral cortex
involved in receiving sensations, creating perceptions, thinking, and imagining

31. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.) LSD Dangers
psychological effects partially depend on the setting and the person’s state of mind
if a person is tense or anxious or in an unfamiliar setting, he or she may experience a bad trip
severe trips may lead to psychotic reactions (especially paranoid feelings) that require hospitalization
users may experience flashbacks (after the experience)
occur for no apparent reason

32. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.) Psilocybin
“magic mushrooms” (Psilocybe mexicana)
possession or use of psilocybn is illegal
drug
psilocybin in low doses produces pleasant and relaxed feelings
medium doses produce perceptual distortions in time and space
high doses produce distortions in perceptions and body image and sometimes hallucinations

33. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.) Psilocybin nervous system
chemically related to LSD
inhibits serotonin receptors
hallucinatory effects last half as long as LSD

34. not physical harm to the brain or body
HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.)
Psilocybin
Dangers
not physical harm to the brain or body
potential for inducing psychotic states that may persist long after the experience is expected to end
accidental poisonings are common from eating poisonous mushrooms, mistaking them for magic mushrooms

35. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.) Mescaline peyote cactus
contains about 30 psychoactive chemicals
most potent is mescaline
possession of mescaline is illegal for all except those who belong to the Native American Church
drug
2,000 times less potent than LSD
high doses: produce very clear and vivid visual hallucinations
does not impair the intellect or cloud consciousness

36. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.) Mescaline nervous system
reaches maximum concentration in the brain about minutes after someone eats buttons of peyote cactus
increases the activity of neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine
activates the sympathetic nervous system
produces physiological arousal: increased heart rate, temperature, and sometimes vomiting

37. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.) Mescaline Dangers can last 6-8 hours
Users may experience headaches and vomiting

38. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.) Designer drugs
manufactured or synthetic drugs that are designed to resemble already existing illegal psychoactive drugs and produce or mimic their psychoactive effects
drug
MDMA, ecstasy
resembles both mescaline and amphetamine
heightens sensations, gives a euphoric rush, raises body temperature, and creates feelings of warmth and empathy

39. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.) Designer drugs MDMA nervous system
causes large amounts of dopamine and serotonin to be released
afterward: users may feel depressed and have attention memory deficits
MDMA may cause brain damage

40. HALLUCINOGENS (CONT.) Designer drugs MDMA Dangers
recreational trips can last 6 hours
include: euphoria, high energy, jaw clenching, teeth grinding, increased body temperature, and insomnia
higher doses include: panic, rapid heart beat, high body temperature, paranoia, and psychotic-like symptoms

41. ALCOHOL History and use
first brewery appeared in Egypt in about 3700 B.C.
safe alcohol to drink is ethyl alcohol
level of alcohol is measured in percentage in the blood: blood alcohol content or BAC
national legal definition of being drunk is 0.08 (after possibly 3-4 drinks)
effects the nervous system and results in behavioral and emotional changes

42. ALCOHOL (CONT.)
drug
ethyl alcohol is a psychoactive drug classified as a depressant
depresses activity of the central nervous system
alcohol seems like a stimulant but later depresses physiological and psychological responses

43. ALCOHOL (CONT.) Nervous system
affects many parts of the nervous system
stimulates GABA neural receptors, leads to feeling less anxious and less inhibited
also impairs the anterior cingulate cortex, monitors the control of motor actions
drinkers fail to recognize their impaired motor performance (driving)
high doses: depresses vital breathing reflexes in the medulla (brain stem)
may lead to death

44. ALCOHOL (CONT.) Dangers hangover
includes upset stomach, dizziness, fatigue, headache, and depression
repeated and heavy drinking can result in tolerance, addiction, and dependency
withdrawal symptoms
shaking, nausea, anxiety, diarrhea, hallucinations, and disorientation
another serious problem, blackout
occur after heavy and repeated drinking

45. ALCOHOL (CONT.) Dangers (cont.) blackouts
person seems to behave normally but does not remember what happened when sober
repeated and heavy drinking can also result in liver damage, alcoholism, and brain damage

46. ALCOHOL (CONT.) Risk factors
of 109 million people who drink alcohol, 10 to 14 million will develop alcoholism
psychological risk factors
children of either one or both alcoholic parents can develop unusual, abnormal, or maladaptive psychological and emotional traits

47. ALCOHOL (CONT.) Risk factors genetic risk factors
refer to inherited biases for predispositions that increase the potential for alcoholism
genetic factors contribute 50 to 60% to the reasons a person becomes an alcoholic

48. MARIJUANA Use and effects Most widely used illegal drug
medical marijuana
can be effective in treating nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy, appetite loss in AIDS patients, eye disease (glaucoma), muscle spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis, and some forms of pain
gateway effect
says that using marijuana leads young people to try harder drugs

49. MARIJUANA (CONT.)
drug
psychoactive drug whose primary active ingredient is THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)
found in leaves of the cannabis plant
THC is rapidly absorbed by the lungs (while smoking)
5-10 minutes produces a hit that lasts for several hours
depending on the user’s state of mind, marijuana can either heighten or distort pleasant or unpleasant experiences, moods, or feelings

50. MARIJUANA (CONT.) nervous system
THC receptors are located throughout the brain, including the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, limbic system, cerebellum, and basal ganglia
the brain itself makes a chemical similar to THC
anandamide
currently under study

51. MARIJUANA (CONT.) Dangers
can cause temporary changes in cognitive functioning
can temporarily decrease secretion of various hormones and effectiveness of the immune system
respiratory problems like bronchitis and asthma
high doses: may cause toxic psychoses, including delusions, paranoia, and feelings of terror