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Stress & Worker Well-Being
Chapter 10 Stress & Worker Well-Being C. Borland/PhotoLink/Getty Images
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Module 10.1: The Problem of Stress
Studying workplace stress Work stressors Task & role stressors Moderators of the stress process Individual differences & social support Consequences of stress Burnout & heart disease
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Studying Workplace Stress (cont’d)
Selye – “Father of Stress” Defined stress as “the non-specific response of the human body to any demand made on it” Eustress vs. distress General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Alarm reaction Resistance Exhaustion Response to chronic stress
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Studying Workplace Stress (cont’d)
Recent studies In addition to physiological reaction to stress, there is also a cognitive appraisal of situation & of resources available to handle stressors Problem-focused coping Managing or altering the problem causing the stress Emotion-focused coping Reducing the emotional response to the problem
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Framework for Study of Stress (Kahn & Byosiere, 1992)
Figure 10.1
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What is a Stressor? Stressors Strains
Physical or psychological demands to which an individual responds Strains Reaction or response to stressors Situational constraints Heat, cold, noise Role stressors Interpersonal conflict Emotional labor Work schedule Workload Perceived control Work pace, time pressure
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Common Stressors at Work
Physical/Task stressors Effect of multiple stressors can be cumulative e.g., Noise, demands of a given job Royalty-Free/CORBIS
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Psychological Stressors
Lack of control/predictability Individual’s perception of control or predictability determines his/her response to the situation Interpersonal conflict Negative interactions w/co-workers, supervisors, clients Can occur when resources are scarce, employees have incompatible interests, or employees feel they are not being treated fairly
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Psychological Stressors (cont’d)
Role stressors: Result from multiple task requirements or roles of employees Role ambiguity Employees lack clear knowledge of expected behavior Role conflict Demands from different sources are incompatible Role overload An employee is expected to fill to many roles at once
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Psychological Stressors (cont’d)
Work-family conflict When workers experience conflict between roles they fulfill at work & roles they fulfill in their personal lives Flexible time schedules & child care becoming increasingly important
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Psychological Stressors (cont’d)
Emotional labor: Regulation of one’s emotions to meet job or organizational demands Surface acting Consists of managing or faking one’s expressions or emotions Deep acting Consists of managing one’s feelings, including emotions required by the job
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Behavioral Consequences of Stress
Information processing Chronic stress has negative effects on memory, reaction time, accuracy, & task performance Performance Hypothesis: Performance & stress have an inverted U relationship As arousal increases, performance increases, but only up to a certain point, & then performance begins to decline
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Stress & Performance: Inverted U Relationship
Figure 10.2
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Psychological Consequences of Stress
Burnout Extreme state of psychological strain resulting from prolonged response to chronic job stressors that exceed an individual’s resources to cope with them 3 components Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Low personal accomplishment
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Physiological Consequences of Stress
Stressful situations cause overactivation of sympathetic nervous system (SNS), producing several kinds of stress hormones Initially, these changes can improve decision making & physical performance Chronic activation of SNS leads to “wear & tear” on coronary arteries & heart
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Module 10.2: Theories of Stress
Demand-Control Model 2 factors prominent in producing job stress Job demands Workload or intellectual requirements Control (decision latitude) Autonomy & discretion for using different skills
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Demand-Control Model (cont’d)
Figure 10.3 Demand-Control Model Source: Adapted from Karasek (1979).
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Demand-Control Model (cont’d)
Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ) Role overload & role conflict (demands) Skill utilization & job decision (control) Depression, job dissatisfaction, & sleep problems (health consequences)
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Person-Environment Fit Model
Hypothesis: Fit between person & environment determines amount of stress that person perceives Considers external influences like social support from family & work sources Person-job fit vs. person-organization fit
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Individual Differences in Resistance to Stress
Moderators of stressor-strain relationship Locus of control (LOC) Belief of individuals that what happens to them is under their control Hardiness Set of personality characteristics that provide resistance to stress Self-esteem Positive self-worth that is considered to be an important resource for coping
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Example of Moderator Figure 10.4
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Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP)
Moderator of stressor-strain relationship Individuals displaying TABP characterized by ambitiousness, impatience, easily aroused hostility, & time urgency Seem to thrive on “life in the fast lane”
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Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP)
Compared to Type Bs, Type As more punctual, work at faster rates, & higher achievers in college & in professional careers Hostility is primary TABP subcomponent associated with increased risk of heart disease & other long-term, harmful health outcomes
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TABP Subcomponents Achievement strivings (AS)
Tendency to be active & work hard in achieving one’s goals Positively correlated with academic performance, sales performance, & job satisfaction Impatience/Irritability (II) Intolerance, frustration that results from being slowed down Associated with health problems like insomnia, headaches, poor digestion, & respiratory difficulties
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TABP Subcomponent Time urgency
Refers to feeling of being pressured by inadequate time Dimensions include eating behavior, nervous energy, list making, scheduling, speech patterns, & deadline control
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Module 10.3: Reducing & Managing Stress
Primary prevention strategies Concerned with modifying or eliminating stressors in work environment Most proactive & preventative approaches to stress management Examples: Work & job design Cognitive restructuring
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Secondary Prevention Strategies
Involve modifying responses to inevitable demands or stressors Role is often one of damage control Strategies that require no special training include lifestyle choices such as physical fitness, healthy eating, & weight control Can be proactive or reactive
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Secondary Prevention Strategies
Stress management training Useful for helping employees deal with workplace stressors that are difficult to change Cognitive-behavioral skills training Stress inoculation Relaxation & biofeedback techniques Progressive muscle relaxation & deep breathing Social support: Instrumental, emotional, informational, & appraisal support Royalty-Free/CORBIS
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Tertiary Prevention Strategies
Focused on healing negative effects of stressors Employee assistance programs (EAPs) Counseling provided by an organization to deal with workplace stress, alcohol/drug difficulties, & problems stemming from outside the job
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Summary of Stress Intervention Strategies
Combining various stress management interventions is more effective than using any single approach Successful stress management interventions must accurately identify stressors causing strain & actively determine ways to reduce those stressors Primary stress intervention strategies generally preferred over other interventions
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Future Work Trends & Challenges to Stress & Stress Management
Workforce is becoming more culturally & ethnically diverse Important for I-O psychologists to determine whether factors that predict health problems in White males are same as in other populations Influences in the new millennium predicted to be stressful Technological change, global competition, downsizing, elder & child care, & increased teamwork
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Module 10.4: Violence at Work
Violent actions carried out by a non-employee against an employee Vs. Violence perpetrated by employees & directed toward fellow employees Many hypotheses for why workplace has become more violent since the early 1990s
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3 Levels of Violence Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Spreads rumors & gossip to harm others, consistently argues with co-workers Level 2 Refuses to obey company policies & procedures, verbalizes wishes to hurt co-workers or management Level 3 Recurrent physical fights, destruction of property
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Experiential Sequence of Violence Perpetrators
Figure 10.12 Routine Experiential Sequence of Violence Perpetrators Source: Based on Kinney (1995).
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“Typical” Violent Worker
Most cases of workplace violence involve some feeling of being treated unfairly, & perpetrator has some real or imaginary grievance against organization or a person in the organization Characteristics of a violent worker May include: Abuses alcohol, has a history of violence, has difficult accepting authority, is a white male years of age
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Theories of Workplace Violence
Frustration-aggression hypothesis Argues that frustration leads to aggression Ultimately found to be too broad Not all frustrated individuals act aggressively & not all aggressive acts are a result of frustration Modern view: Frustration leads to stress reaction & individual expends energy to relieve this stress High self-esteem is associated with violence
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Employee Behavior as a Result of Frustration & Employee Control
Figure 10.13 Constructive and Destructive Employee Behavior as a Result of Frustration and Employee Control Source: Spector (2000).
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Theories of Workplace Violence (cont’d)
“Justice” hypothesis Proposes that some violent acts can be understood as reactions by an employee against perceived injustice Relevance to the 3 types of justice Layoffs & firings Performance appraisals
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Special Type of Violence: Bullying
Bullying - Harassing, offending, socially excluding, or assigning humiliating tasks to subordinate repeatedly & over long period of time 4 steps in escalation A critical incident Bullying & stigmatizing Organizational intervention Expulsion of the victim Royalty-Free/CORBIS
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Conclusions About Workplace Violence
Employees need avenues for communicating concerns about the fairness of organizational decisions that affect them Managers need to be sensitive to signs of potential trouble in form of individual worker behaviors
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