1. Work in the 21st Century Chapter 10
Stress & Worker Well-Being
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2. Module 10.1: The Problem of Stress
Studying workplace stress
3 important factors:
Work stressors
Task & role stressors
Moderators of the stress process
Individual differences & social support
Consequences of stress
Burnout & heart disease

3. Studying Workplace Stress (cont’d)
Selye – “Father of Stress”
Defined stress as “the non-specific response of the human body to any demand made on it”
Eustress (good) vs. distress (bad)
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Alarm reaction Resistance Exhaustion
Response to chronic stress

4. Studying Workplace Stress (cont’d)
Recent studies
In addition to physiological reaction to stress, there is also a cognitive appraisal of situation & of resources available to handle stressors
2 coping styles
Problem-focused coping
Managing or altering the problem causing the stress
Emotion-focused coping
Reducing the emotional response to the problem

5. Framework for Study of Stress (Kahn & Byosiere, 1992)
Figure 10.1 Theoretical Framework for the Study of Stress in Organizations SOURCE: Kahn & Byosiere (1992)

6. What is a Stressor? Stressors Strains
Physical or psychological demands to which an individual responds
Strains
Reaction or response to stressors
Situational constraints
Heat, cold, noise
Role stressors
Interpersonal conflict
Emotional labor
Work schedule
Workload
Perceived control
Work pace, time pressure

7. Common Stressors in the Workplace

8. Common Stressors at Work
Physical/Task stressors
Effect of multiple stressors can be cumulative
e.g., Noise, demands of a given job
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9. Psychological Stressors
Perceived lack of control/predictability
Individual’s perception of control or predictability determines his/her response to the situation
Perceptions of control are related to Autonomy, which is the extent to which employees can control how and when they perform the tasks of their job

10. Psychological Stressors (cont’d)
Interpersonal conflict
Negative interactions w/co-workers, supervisors, clients
Can occur when resources are scarce, employees have incompatible interests, or employees feel they are not being treated fairly

11. Psychological Stressors (cont’d)
Role stressors: Result from multiple task requirements or roles of employees
Role ambiguity
Employees lack clear knowledge of expected behavior
Role conflict
Demands from different sources are incompatible
Role overload
An employee is expected to fill to many roles at once

12. Psychological Stressors (cont’d)
Work-family conflict
When workers experience conflict between roles they fulfill at work & roles they fulfill in their personal lives
Flexible time schedules & child care becoming increasingly important

13. Psychological Stressors (cont’d)
Emotional labor: Regulation of one’s emotions to meet job or organizational demands (2 strategies):
Surface acting
Consists of managing or faking one’s expressions or emotions
Deep acting
Consists of managing one’s feelings, including emotions required by the job

14. Consequences of Stress

15. Behavioral Consequences of Stress
Information processing
Chronic stress has negative effects on memory, reaction time, accuracy, & task performance
Performance
Hypothesis: Performance & stress have an inverted U relationship (Figure 10.2)
As arousal increases, performance increases, but only up to a certain point, & then performance begins to decline

16. Stress & Performance: Inverted U Relationship
Figure 10.2 SOURCE: Jex (1998).

17. Psychological Consequences of Stress
Burnout
Extreme state of psychological strain resulting from prolonged response to chronic job stressors that exceed an individual’s resources to cope with them
Measured with Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)
3 components
Emotional exhaustion
Depersonalization
Low personal accomplishment

18. Examples of Burnout Items

19. Physiological Consequences of Stress
Stressful situations cause overactivation of sympathetic nervous system (SNS), producing several kinds of stress hormones
Initially, these changes can improve decision making & physical performance
Chronic activation of SNS leads to “wear & tear” on coronary arteries & heart

20. Work Schedules 3 different scheduling formats Scheduling variations
Shift work
Fixed shift
Rotating shift
Scheduling variations
Flextime
Compressed workweek
Telecommuting

21. Module 10.2: Theories of Stress
Demand-Control Model
2 factors prominent in producing job stress
Job demands
Workload or intellectual requirements
Control (decision latitude)
Autonomy & discretion for using different skills

22. Demand-Control Model (cont’d)
Figure 10.3
Demand-Control Model
Source: Adapted from Karasek (1979)

23. Demand-Control Model (cont’d)
Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ)
Role overload & role conflict (demands)
Skill utilization & job decision (control)
Depression, job dissatisfaction, & sleep problems (health consequences)

24. Person-Environment Fit Model
Hypothesis: Fit between person & environment determines amount of stress that person perceives
Considers external influences like social support from family & work sources
Person-job fit vs. person-organization fit

25. Individual Differences in Resistance to Stress
Moderators of stressor-strain relationship
Locus of control (LOC)
Belief of individuals that what happens to them is under their control
Hardiness
Set of personality characteristics that provide resistance to stress
Self-esteem
Positive self-worth that is considered to be an important resource for coping

26. Example of Moderator Figure 10.4
Example of a Moderator of the Stressor-Strain Relationship.

27. Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP)
Moderator of stressor-strain relationship
Individuals displaying TABP characterized by ambitiousness, impatience, easily aroused hostility, & time urgency
Type A’s seem to thrive on “life in the fast lane”

28. Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP)
Compared to Type Bs, Type As more punctual, work at faster rates, & higher achievers in college & in professional careers
However, global TABP does not predict outcomes as well as specific TABP subcomponents
Hostility is primary TABP subcomponent associated with increased risk of heart disease & other long-term, harmful health outcomes

29. TABP Subcomponents Achievement strivings (AS)
Tendency to be active & work hard in achieving one’s goals
Positively correlated with academic performance, sales performance, & job satisfaction
Impatience/Irritability (II)
Intolerance, frustration that results from being slowed down
Associated with health problems like insomnia, headaches, poor digestion, & respiratory difficulties

30. TABP Subcomponent Time urgency
Refers to feeling of being pressured by inadequate time
Dimensions include eating behavior, nervous energy, list making, scheduling, speech patterns, & deadline control

31. Module 10.3: Reducing & Managing Stress
Occupational health psychology (OHP)
Application of psychology to improving the quality of work life, and to protecting and promoting the safety, health, and well-being of workers
Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology
Comprehensive source for OHP issues (i.e., work-family balance, work design, and stress management interventions)
Occupational health psychologists often divide approaches into 3 major categories
Primary, secondary, and tertiary

32. Primary Prevention Strategies
Concerned with modifying or eliminating stressors in work environment
Most proactive & preventative approaches to stress management
Examples:
Work & job design
Cognitive restructuring

33. Secondary Prevention Strategies
Involve modifying responses to inevitable demands or stressors
Role is often one of damage control
Strategies that require no special training include lifestyle choices such as physical fitness, healthy eating, & weight control
Can be proactive or reactive

34. Secondary Prevention Strategies
Stress management training
Useful for helping employees deal with workplace stressors that are difficult to change
Cognitive-behavioral skills training
Stress inoculation
Relaxation & biofeedback techniques
Progressive muscle relaxation & deep breathing
Social support: Instrumental, emotional, informational, & appraisal support
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35. Tertiary Prevention Strategies
Focused on healing negative effects of stressors
Employee assistance programs (EAPs)
Counseling provided by an organization to deal with workplace stress, alcohol/drug difficulties, & problems stemming from outside the job

36. A Framework for Stress Management Interventions

37. Summary of Stress Intervention Strategies
Combining various stress management interventions is more effective than using any single approach
Successful stress management interventions must accurately identify stressors causing strain & actively determine ways to reduce those stressors
Primary stress intervention strategies generally preferred over other interventions

38. Future Work Trends & Challenges to Stress & Stress Management
Workforce is becoming more culturally & ethnically diverse
Important for I-O psychologists to determine whether factors that predict health problems in White males are same as in other populations
Influences in the new millennium predicted to be stressful
Technological change, global competition, downsizing, elder & child care, & increased teamwork

39. Module 10.4: Violence at Work
Violent actions carried out by a non-employee against an employee
Vs.
Violence perpetrated by employees & directed toward fellow employees
Many hypotheses for why workplace has become more violent since the early 1990s

40. Incidents or Behaviors Associated with the 3 Levels of Violence

41. Experiential Sequence of Violence Perpetrators
Figure 10.5
Routine Experiential
Sequence of Violence
Perpetrators
Source: Based on Kinney
(1995).

42. “Typical” Violent Worker
Most cases of workplace violence involve some feeling of being treated unfairly, & perpetrator has some real or imaginary grievance against organization or a person in the organization
Characteristics of a violent worker
May include: Abuses alcohol, has a history of violence, has difficult accepting authority, is a white male years of age

43. Theories of Workplace Violence
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
Argues that frustration leads to aggression
Ultimately found to be too broad
Not all frustrated individuals act aggressively & not all aggressive acts are a result of frustration
Modern view: Frustration leads to stress reaction & individual expends energy to relieve this stress
High self-esteem is associated with violence

44. Employee Behavior as a Result of Frustration & Employee Control
Figure 10.6
Constructive and Destructive Employee
Behavior as a Result of Frustration and
Employee Control
SOURCE: Spector (2000)

45. Theories of Workplace Violence (cont’d)
“Justice” hypothesis
Proposes that some violent acts can be understood as reactions by an employee against perceived injustice
Relevance to the 3 types of justice
Layoffs & firings
Performance appraisals

46. Actions to Prevent Workplace Violence

47. Special Type of Violence: Bullying
Bullying - Harassing, offending, socially excluding, or assigning humiliating tasks to subordinate repeatedly & over long period of time
4 steps in escalation
A critical incident
Bullying & stigmatizing
Organizational intervention
Expulsion of the victim
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48. Conclusions About Workplace Violence
Employees need avenues for communicating concerns about the fairness of organizational decisions that affect them
Managers need to be sensitive to signs of potential trouble in form of individual worker behaviors